10-K
UNITED STATES
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION
Washington, D.C. 20549
FORM 10-K
(Mark One)
☒ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934
For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022
OR
☐TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934
For the transition period from to
Commission File Number 001-38360
Solid Biosciences Inc.
(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its Charter)
500 Rutherford Avenue, Third FloorCharlestown, MA 02129
(Address of principal executive offices) (Zip Code)
Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (617) 337-4680
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:
Title of each class Trading Symbol Name of exchange on which registered
Common Stock $0.001 par value per share SLDB The Nasdaq Global Select Market
Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:
None
(Title of class)
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes☐No☒
Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act. Yes☐No☒
Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes☒No☐
Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files). Yes☒No☐
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.
Large accelerated filer ☐ Accelerated filer ☐
Non-accelerated filer ☒ Smaller reporting company ☒
Emerging growth company ☒
If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☒
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☐
If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐
Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐
Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act). YES ☐ NO ☒
As of June 30, 2022, the last business day of the Registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter, the aggregate market value of the Registrant’s common stock held by non-affiliates was $46.2 million, based on the last reported sale price of such stock on the Nasdaq Global Select Market as of such date.
The number of shares of Registrant’s common stock outstanding as of March 20, 2023 was 19,573,132.
DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE
The registrant intends to file a definitive proxy statement pursuant to Regulation 14A within 120 days of the end of the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022. Portions of such definitive proxy statement are incorporated by reference into Part III of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.
Table of Contents
Page
PART I 1
Item 1. Business 1
Item 1A. Risk Factors 32
Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments 89
Item 2. Properties 89
Item 3. Legal Proceedings 89
Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures 89
Item 6. Reserved 91
Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk 105
Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data 106
Item 9A. Controls and Procedures 106
Item 9B. Other Information 107
Item 9C. Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections 107
Item 10. Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance 108
Item 11. Executive Compensation 108
Item 14. Principal Accounting Fees and Services 108
Item 15. Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules 109
CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS F-2
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CAUTIONARY NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS AND INDUSTRY DATA
This Annual Report on Form 10-K includes forward-looking statements, which involve risks and uncertainties. These forward-looking statements can be identified by the use of forward-looking terminology, including the terms “believe,” “estimate,” “project,” “anticipate,” “expect,” “seek,” “predict,” “aim,” “continue,” “possible,” “intend,” “may,” “might,” “will,” “could,” “would” or “should” or, in each case, their negative, or other variations or comparable terminology. These forward-looking statements include all matters that are not historical facts. They appear in a number of places throughout this Annual Report on Form 10-K. We derive many of our forward-looking statements from our operating budgets and forecasts, which are based upon many detailed assumptions. While we believe that our assumptions are reasonable, we caution that it is very difficult to predict the impact of known factors, and, of course, it is impossible for us to anticipate all factors that could affect our actual results. All forward-looking statements are based upon information available to us on the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.
The forward-looking statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K include, among other things, statements about:
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the timing, progress and results of preclinical studies and clinical trials for our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates;
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our ability to establish or maintain collaborations or strategic relationships, including our collaboration with Ultragenyx Pharmaceutical Inc., or Ultragenyx;
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our ability to obtain and maintain U.S. regulatory approval of our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates, and the timing and scope thereof;
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our ability to obtain and maintain foreign regulatory approvals of our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates, and the timing and the scope thereof;
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the size of the patient populations and potential market opportunity for our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates, if approved for commercial use;
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our manufacturing capabilities and strategy, including the scalability and commercial viability of our manufacturing methods and processes;
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our plans to develop and commercialize our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates, if approved;
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the pricing and reimbursement of our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates we may develop, if approved;
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the establishment of sales, marketing and distribution capabilities and entry into agreements with third parties to market and sell our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates, if approved;
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the rate and degree of market acceptance and clinical utility of our neuromuscular (e.g., SGT-003, AVB-202-TT), cardiac (e.g., AVB-401) or other future candidates we may develop and for which we may receive approval;
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our plans to develop our platform technologies;
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our expectations related to our use of capital resources;
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our estimates regarding expenses, ongoing losses, future revenue, capital requirements and need for and ability to obtain additional financing;
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our intellectual property position;
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our competitive and market position;
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developments relating to our competitors and our industry;
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the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business and operations and our future financial results;
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our ability to continue as a going concern; and
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the impact of laws and regulations on our operations.
By their nature, forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties because they relate to events and depend on circumstances that may or may not occur in the future. We caution you that forward-looking statements are not guarantees of future performance and that our actual results of operations, financial condition, business and prospects may differ materially from those made in or suggested by the forward-looking statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. In addition, even if our results of operations, financial condition, business and prospects are consistent with the forward-looking
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statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, those results may not be indicative of results in subsequent periods.
You should read this Annual Report on Form 10-K and the documents that we have filed as exhibits to this Annual Report on Form 10-K completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements. The forward-looking statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K are made as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, and we do not assume any obligation to update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by applicable law.
This Annual Report on Form 10-K includes statistical and other industry and market data that we obtained from industry publications and research, surveys and studies conducted by third parties as well as our own estimates of potential market opportunities based on our analysis of these data, research, surveys and studies. All of the market data used in this Annual Report on Form 10-K involves a number of assumptions and limitations, and you are cautioned not to give undue weight to such data. Industry publications and third-party research, surveys and studies generally indicate that their information has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, although they do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of such information. Our estimates of the potential market opportunities for our candidates include a number of key assumptions based on our industry knowledge, industry publications and third-party research, surveys and studies, which may be based on a small sample size and fail to accurately reflect market opportunities. While we believe that our internal assumptions are reasonable, no independent source has verified such assumptions.
As used in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, the terms “Solid,” “the Company,” “we,” “us” and “our” refer to Solid Biosciences Inc. unless the context indicates otherwise.
RISK FACTOR SUMMARY
Our business is subject to a number of risks that if realized could materially affect our business, operating results and financial condition and the trading price of our common stock could decline. These risks are discussed more fully in the “Risk Factors” section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These risks include the following:
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Our stockholders may not realize a benefit from the Acquisition and the related private placement commensurate with the ownership dilution they experienced in connection with the Acquisition and the related private placement.
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We have incurred significant net losses since inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur net losses for the foreseeable future and may never achieve or maintain profitability.
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We will need additional funding, which may not be available on acceptable terms, or at all. Failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed may force us to delay, limit or terminate our product development efforts or other operations.
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Unfavorable global economic conditions could harm our business, financial condition or results of operations.
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We hold a portion of our cash and cash equivalents that we use to meet our working capital and operating expense needs in deposit accounts that could be adversely affected if the financial institutions holding such funds fail.
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We have never generated revenue from product sales and do not expect to do so for the foreseeable future, if ever.
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Our limited operating history may make it difficult for our stockholders to evaluate the success of our business to date and to assess our future viability.
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The COVID-19 pandemic or other pandemics may affect our ability to initiate and complete current or future preclinical studies or clinical trials, disrupt regulatory activities, disrupt our manufacturing and supply chain or have other adverse effects on our business and operations. In addition, this pandemic may continue to adversely impact economies worldwide, which could result in adverse effects on our business and operations.
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One of our clinical trials has been placed on clinical hold by the FDA in the past, and we cannot guarantee that similar events will not happen in future clinical trials for other candidates.
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Our gene transfer candidates are based on novel technology, which makes it difficult to predict the time and cost of development and of subsequently obtaining regulatory approval.
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Our gene transfer candidates may cause undesirable side effects or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval, limit their commercial potential or result in significant negative consequences following any potential marketing approval.
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We have never completed a clinical trial and may be unable to do so for any product candidates we may develop, including SGT-003, AVB-202-TT and AVB-401.
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Success in preclinical studies or early clinical trials may not be indicative of results obtained in later trials.
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Preliminary or interim data that we announce or publish from time to time may change as more data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.
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We may encounter substantial delays in our clinical trials or we may fail to demonstrate safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of applicable regulatory authorities.
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We may find it difficult to enroll patients in our clinical trials, which could delay or prevent us from proceeding with clinical trials of SGT-003, AVB-202-TT, AVB-401 or other future candidates.
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Even if we complete the necessary clinical trials, we cannot predict when, or if, we will obtain regulatory approval to commercialize SGT-003 or other current and future candidates and the approval may be for a more narrow indication than we seek.
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We face significant competition.
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We may not be successful in finding strategic collaborators for continuing development of SGT-003, AVB-202-TT, AVB-401 or future candidates or platform technologies, or for successfully commercializing or competing in the market for certain indications.
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We have limited gene therapy manufacturing experience and could experience production problems and delays in obtaining regulatory approval of our manufacturing processes, which could result in delays in the development or commercialization of SGT-003 or other current and future candidates. In addition, changes to manufacturing sites or processes, or formulations for our product candidates may result in additional cost or delay.
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We expect to utilize third parties to conduct our product manufacturing for the foreseeable future. Therefore, we are subject to the risk that these third parties may not perform satisfactorily or meet regulatory requirements.
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Negative results for other gene therapy candidates, poor public opinion and increased regulatory scrutiny of gene therapy may unsuccessful adversely affect our ability to conduct our business or obtain regulatory approvals for SGT-003 or other gene transfer candidates.
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We heavily rely on certain in-licensed patents and other intellectual property rights in connection with our development of SGT-003, AVB-202-TT, AVB-401 and other future candidates and may be required to acquire or license additional patents or other intellectual property rights to continue to develop and commercialize SGT-003 and other current and future candidates.
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If we are unable to obtain and maintain patent protection for our product candidates, or if the scope of the patent protection obtained is not sufficiently broad, our competitors could develop and commercialize products similar or identical to ours, and our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates may be adversely affected.
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Our intellectual property licenses with third parties may be subject to disagreements over contract interpretation, which could narrow the scope of our rights to the relevant intellectual property or technology or increase our financial or other obligations to our licensors.
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If we cannot comply with Nasdaq’s continued listing standards, our common stock could be delisted, which would harm our business, the trading price of our common stock, our ability to raise additional capital and the liquidity of the market for our common stock.
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The price of our common stock has been, and in the future is likely to be, volatile and fluctuate substantially, which could result in substantial losses for holders of our common stock.
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Our October 2022 reverse stock split may decrease the liquidity of the shares of our common stock.
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PART I
Item 1. Business.
Overview
We are a life science company focused on advancing a portfolio of neuromuscular and cardiac programs, including SGT-003, a differentiated gene therapy candidate, for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, or Duchenne; AVB-202-TT, a gene therapy program for the treatment of Friedreich’s ataxia, or FA; AVB-401, a gene therapy program for the treatment of BAG3-mediated dilated cardiomyopathy; and additional assets for the treatment of undisclosed cardiac diseases. We aim to be a center of excellence, bringing together those with expertise in science, technology, disease management and care. Patient-focused and founded by those directly impacted by Duchenne, our mandate is to improve the daily lives of patients living with these devastating diseases.
Solid was purpose-built to advance the best science and accelerate the discovery and development of treatments that may benefit all patients with Duchenne. As Solid expands to bring meaningful treatments to patients living with other neuromuscular and cardiac diseases, the values and guiding principles that drive us continue. Our corporate vision is to build an innovation platform enabling the discovery and development of high-value genetic medicines for neuromuscular and cardiac diseases by integrating internal capabilities, including a vector core, use of validated animal models, optimized expression cassettes, novel capsids and regulatory elements, and collaborations with leaders in related clinical and research fields. Our mission, which guides our operations, is to treat and change the course of neuromuscular and cardiac diseases at all stages. Underscoring this mission, our disease-focused business model is founded on the following fundamental principles:
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identify and develop meaningful therapies for patients with neuromuscular and cardiac diseases;
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bring together the leading experts in neuromuscular and cardiac diseases, science, technology, disease management and care; and
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be guided by the needs of these patients.
On October 26, 2022, our board of directors approved a reverse stock split of our outstanding shares of common stock at a ratio of one-for-15 (1:15). The reverse stock split became effective on October 27, 2022. The reverse stock split was approved by our stockholders at our Annual Meeting of Stockholders on June 7, 2022. All share and per share amounts of the common stock included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including in the accompanying consolidated financial statements, have been retrospectively adjusted to give effect to the reverse stock split for all periods presented, including reclassifying an amount equal to the reduction in par value to additional paid-in capital.
On December 2, 2022, we completed our acquisition of AavantiBio, Inc., or AavantiBio, a privately held gene therapy company focused on transforming the lives of patients with FA and rare cardiomyopathies, or the Acquisition. Upon the consummation of the Acquisition, we acquired AavantiBio’s gene therapy programs, AVB-202-TT and AVB-401, additional assets for the treatment of undisclosed cardiac diseases, platform technologies and know-how related thereto.
Our Pipeline
We are focused on developing transformative treatments to improve the lives of patients with rare neuromuscular and cardiac diseases. Our current programs are all designed for treating these diseases with gene transfer products. Gene transfer, a type of gene therapy, is designed to address diseases caused by mutated genes through the delivery of functional versions of those genes, called transgenes. The transgenes are then utilized by the body to produce proteins that are absent or not functional prior to treatment, potentially offering long-lasting clinical benefit. In addition to a transgene, our gene transfer candidates include a viral capsid (a protein shell utilized as a vehicle to deliver a transgene to cells in the body) and a promoter (a specialized DNA sequence that directs cells to produce the protein in specific tissues). The vector is modified to no longer self-replicate yet still retain its ability to introduce new genetic material directly into patients’ cells. Adeno-associated virus, or AAV, vectors have been approved for use to deliver transgenes to patients, including via systemic delivery. The use of AAV vectors to deliver gene therapies has also been extensively studied by third parties in human clinical trials for multiple disease indications, and in certain of these trials AAV was delivered systemically to the patient.
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Neuromuscular Pipeline
About Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Duchenne is a genetic muscle-wasting disease predominantly affecting boys, with symptoms that usually manifest between three and five years of age. Duchenne is a progressive, irreversible, and ultimately fatal disease that affects approximately one in every 3,500 to 5,000 live male births and has an estimated prevalence of 5,000 to 15,000 cases in the United States alone. Duchenne is caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, which results in the absence or near-absence of dystrophin protein. Dystrophin protein works to strengthen muscle fibers and protect them from daily wear and tear. Dystrophin protein also serves as the cornerstone of the dystrophin glycoprotein complex, or DGC, a group of proteins that links the inner and outer components of muscle cells to ensure proper muscle function. Without functioning dystrophin and DGC, muscles suffer excessive damage from normal daily activities and are unable to regenerate, leading to the build-up of fibrotic, or scar, and fat tissue. More than 1,000 dystrophin gene mutations, which can be inherited or can occur spontaneously, have been identified in people with Duchenne. By their early teens, Duchenne patients typically lose their ability to walk and become dependent on a wheelchair for mobility. By their 20s, patients essentially become paralyzed from the neck down and require a ventilator to breathe. Though disease severity and life expectancy vary, a patient’s quality of life dramatically decreases over time, with death typically occurring by early adulthood from either cardiac or respiratory complications.
There is no cure for Duchenne, and for the vast majority of patients, there are no satisfactory symptomatic or disease-modifying treatments. Glucocorticoid treatment, the current standard-of-care, has been shown to temporarily improve muscle strength, prolong the period of ambulation and slow the progression of Duchenne. However, glucocorticoid use is associated with well-known adverse side effects, including: severe weight gain, stunted growth, weakening of bone structure and metabolic dysfunctions, among others. The most commonly used glucocorticoids include prednisone and deflazacort (EMFLAZA).
In recent years, certain regulators have conditionally approved therapies which target specific mutations in the dystrophin gene. These therapies are indicated for only a small portion of the Duchenne patient population, and their respective efficacy profiles still need to be fully understood.
Despite recent therapeutic advances, Duchenne represents a significant societal and economic burden. The economic burden, estimated at $1.2 billion annually in the United States (excluding costly mortality and end-of-life care expenses), includes costs associated with hospital admissions, medication, frequent doctor visits and investment in assistive devices, as well as indirect costs related to productivity losses for the caregivers and costs due to pain, anxiety and social handicap. Of this amount, approximately 45% is represented by indirect costs. Only a small proportion of Duchenne patients are employed and many caregivers reduce their hours or stop working altogether to care for their children, who progressively require more help with everyday tasks, such as eating, dressing and using the bathroom. In some cases, patients also experience serious mental health issues that require additional support and treatment.
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We are actively involved in engaging with the Duchenne patient, clinical and research communities to support advancement of therapies for patients with Duchenne. In November 2021, in collaboration with REGENXBIO Inc., we formally launched the Pathway Development Consortium, or the PDC, a multistakeholder initiative which aims to identify, develop, expand and maintain pathways to effective therapies for patients diagnosed early in life with rare diseases, including Duchenne. The PDC seeks to achieve these goals by bringing together a broad and diverse group of stakeholders from the rare disease and AAV gene therapy communities, including patients, industry, regulators, academia and payers, among others, for meaningful scientific and policy discussions.
SGT-003 and SGT-001
Our efforts have historically been focused on our two Duchenne gene transfer candidates, SGT-003 and SGT-001, which are designed to address the underlying genetic cause of Duchenne by delivering a synthetic transgene that produces dystrophin-like protein that is only expressed in muscles of the body, including skeletal, cardiac and respiratory muscles. Our Duchenne candidate vectors are derived from a naturally occurring, non-pathogenic virus called AAV, which was selected for its ability to efficiently enter skeletal, diaphragm and cardiac muscle tissues. The vectors are designed to carry a synthetic dystrophin transgene construct, called microdystrophin, that retains the most critical components of the full-size dystrophin gene yet is small enough to fit within AAV packaging constraints and a muscle specific promoter.
Our microdystrophin is based on three decades of development and optimization work at the University of Missouri and the University of Washington as well as other academic institutions. In preclinical studies, the laboratories of Jeffrey Chamberlain, Ph.D., from the University of Washington, and Dongsheng Duan, Ph.D., from the University of Missouri, identified a proprietary configuration of genetic components that, when administered systemically, produces functional microdystrophin protein expression that not only stabilizes muscle membranes and protects muscle against injury, but also simultaneously restores the localization of DGC to the muscle membrane, notably increasing neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase, or nNOS, concentration. In subsequent published studies, Drs. Duan and Chamberlain demonstrated in animal models that, in comparison to earlier configurations, nNOS-restoring microdystrophins were more effective in improving muscle function and resistance to fatigue.
We believe the unique functionality of our proprietary microdystrophin may result in functional benefits including diminished muscle fatigue and protection against ischemic muscle damage, which can lead to loss of functional muscle.
The expression of our microdystrophin is regulated by a modified, synthetic muscle-specific promoter cassette called CK8, which is derived from the naturally occurring muscle creatine kinase promoter. Regulatory cassettes, such as CK8, are used to prompt gene expression specifically in muscle tissues. In comparison to other regulatory cassettes, we chose CK8 due to its small size and its ability to drive microdystrophin transgene expression in skeletal, diaphragm and cardiac muscle tissues. In our preclinical studies in small and large animal models, CK8 restricted microdystrophin transgene expression to these muscles.
In contrast to some other therapeutic approaches, our Duchenne candidates are agnostic to specific mutations in the dystrophin gene.
SGT-003
SGT-003, our next-generation Duchenne gene transfer candidate program, is a preclinical candidate designed to preserve muscle function in Duchenne patients after a single administration and is based on some of the most recent understanding of dystrophin biology in the field. SGT-003 utilizes an updated construct, including our microdystrophin with AAV-SLB101, a novel, rationally designed capsid derived from AAV9 and developed for enhanced muscle tropism and reduced liver uptake, to more selectively deliver the drug to target tissue. We believe the SGT-003 construct is differentiated from other gene transfer candidates and may provide unique clinical benefit.
Following in vitro studies in mouse and human muscle cells, AAV-SLB101 was evaluated in a head-to-head study against AAV9 with the CK8-microdystrophin construct in the dystrophin-negative mouse model of Duchenne (mdx mouse). Separate groups of animals were administered a single intravenous dose of either construct and the biodistribution, microdystrophin protein expression, and biomarker analyses were performed at the conclusion of the study. Overall, the in vivo study data supported the results seen from in vitro assays and further demonstrated the potential benefits of SGT-003. The mdx mice dosed with the novel capsid showed increased biodistribution (vector genome copies) in representative muscle tissues and increased microdystrophin expression compared to those administered the AAV9 vector. In addition, there were lower vector genome copies in the liver compared to AAV9-administered animals, with the data supporting a preferential distribution of the novel capsid towards muscle tissue and away from the liver. These data supported the proof of concept for the novel capsid microdystrophin construct in Duchenne and formed a basis for establishing and advancing the SGT-003 program.
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In April 2022, we released additional preclinical data from reporter transgene studies in non-human primates, or NHP, and both mdx and wild type mice suggesting that AAV-SLB101 may have meaningful advantages for the delivery of muscle-related gene therapies. Data from the NHP study using a reporter transgene in AAV-SLB101 demonstrated increased muscle tropism, decreased liver biodistribution and improved efficiency compared with AAV9. The results from the NHP study are consistent with the data from the reporter transgene studies in both mdx and wild type mouse models, which suggested improved muscle tropism and reduced liver uptake.
In September 2022, we announced that we made the strategic decision to prioritize SGT-003 based on its potential clinical attributes and manufacturing process. We also released additional SGT-003 non-clinical data which reinforced previous comparative analyses that demonstrated increased microdystrophin expression using the novel muscle-tropic capsid AAV-SLB101 compared to AAV9. In an in vivo mdx mouse study, muscle tissues collected 28 days post-dosing from mice treated with SGT-003 manufactured using a transient-transfection based process showed approximately 2.3-fold higher levels of microdystrophin protein, as measured by western blot, compared to mice treated at equivalent doses with SGT-001 manufactured using an HSV based process. We believe these data continue to suggest that the AAV-SLB101 capsid, which is used in SGT-003, may be a superior candidate for muscle-targeted gene therapies, with the potential of achieving higher levels of microdystrophin expression with lower total doses, and support the advancement of the development of SGT-003 for the treatment of Duchenne.
Development activities for SGT-003 are ongoing and we anticipate submitting an IND for SGT-003 in the second half of 2023 and, subject to IND clearance, initiating patient dosing in late-2023.
SGT-001
SGT-001 was our first-generation gene therapy candidate for the treatment of Duchenne, and utilized an AAV9 vector with our proprietary nNOS containing microdystrophin. In April 2022, we announced that we completed enrollment in the IGNITE DMD Phase I/II dose-ascending clinical trial, a first in human study evaluating SGT-001, after the treatment of nine Duchenne patients across two dose cohorts. Other than the required ongoing observation of patients in IGNITE DMD and the completion of already in process preclinical experiments, the SGT-001 program has concluded.
One-year post treatment data relating to safety, efficacy and microdystrophin expression in muscle biopsies for patients enrolled in IGNITE DMD was released at the Muscular Dystrophy Association Clinical and Scientific Conference on March 19, 2023. Per regulatory guidelines, the trial remains active to monitor patients for long-term follow up and we expect the next IGNITE DMD clinical update to be at its conclusion, following the 5-year post-dosing visit for the last patient enrolled. As previously disclosed, our primary efforts in Duchenne are currently focused on the ongoing development of SGT-003, our next-generation Duchenne candidate which utilizes an updated construct, including transgene and capsid, designed to increase expression in skeletal muscle while reducing the dose ultimately delivered to the liver.
About Friedreich’s Ataxia
FA is a rare, inherited, multisystem, genetic disease caused by loss of functional frataxin protein, or FXN. One in every approximately 40,000 to 50,000 people suffer from FA, with a carrier rate between 1:60 and 1:100, making FA the most common hereditary ataxia. The average age of diagnosis is in the early teens, which leads to many undiagnosed patients. Males and females are equally affected by FA. Approximately 9,000 patients in the United States and approximately 26,000 patients in the European Union are affected by FA.
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FA is a multisystem disease having both neurological and cardiac manifestations. FA affects the nerves and spinal cord, causing loss of control of body movements (ataxia). The most common manifestations of FA are progressive neurological symptoms, including loss of balance and coordination, loss of sensation in the arms and legs and loss of vision and hearing. A person with FA will usually need a wheelchair within ten to twenty years of symptom onset, may be completely incapacitated in later stages of the disease and may have a shortened life span. Mortality in FA is most commonly due to cardiac complications as 59% of FA deaths are from cardiac dysfunction. Only symptomatic treatment options are available, with none addressing the underlying cause of the disease, the defective frataxin gene. Thus, there is a substantial unmet need with no approved therapies and no disease-modifying standard of care for the broad population of those impacted by FA.
The primary cause of FA is a triplet repeat mutation in the frataxin gene, which encodes for FXN, a mitochondrial iron-binding protein involved in iron homeostasis. FA is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in both copies of the frataxin gene, most commonly due to GAA repeat expansions. Normal frataxin has GAA repeat levels ranging from 1 to 43. Mutated frataxin genes have GAA repeat levels ranging from 44 to 1,700. An increased number of GAA repeats between exon 1 and 2 of the frataxin gene results in abnormally low levels of the frataxin protein and accumulation of intracellular iron. This excess of iron in the heart and brain cells of FA patients promotes the production of toxic reactive oxygen species and leads to mitochondrial damage. This damage ultimately leads to progressive nervous system degeneration, movement problems, and cardiac dysfunction. Disease severity is correlated with increasing GAA repeat number in the frataxin gene.
We believe that FA is a natural candidate for gene therapy treatments. Mutations in both copies of the frataxin gene are the cause of the disease. Onset and progression of the disease are directly related to the amount of FXN expressed in cells. Carriers of one normal and one mutated copy of the frataxin gene are clinically normal. All patients express some level of FXN, and thus will not mount an immune response to the therapeutic protein. Proof-of-concept data in animal models suggests that gene therapy may be a viable treatment for FA. Thus, we believe that delivery of gene therapy to one or more impacted tissues may provide clinical benefit to patients.
AVB-202-TT
Our approach for the treatment of FA is to target both the neurological and cardiac impairments experienced by patients through dual-route administration (intravenous and intrathecal) of gene transfer therapy to more comprehensively target disease pathology. We have conducted extensive characterization of our initial gene transfer therapy candidate for FA, AVB-202, which was developed utilizing an HSV-based manufacturing process, designed with a transgene encoding full length FXN protein packaged into an AAV9 capsid and under control of a universal promoter intended to drive expression of FXN in target tissues of disease, especially those of the central nervous system and heart. Preclinical data from mouse and NHP studies conducted with AVB-202 produced by an HSV manufacturing process supported preclinical proof of concept, including enhanced survival and cardiac function in a cardiac-specific FXN knockout mouse, and an overall favorable safety profile at high FXN expression levels.
We believe that the AVB-202 construct design, along with the planned dual route of administration, supports further development of gene therapy for the treatment of FA. We have moved to a transient transfection manufacturing method for AVB-202, known as AVB-202-TT, the development of which is underway. We are currently working to determine the most appropriate development path for AVB-202-TT and plan to conduct preclinical studies with this candidate in 2023.
Cardiac Pipeline
Genetic cardiac disease, or inherited cardiac conditions, is an umbrella terms to describe cardiac diseases caused by mutations in one or more genes. Cardiomyopathy is a disease of the heart muscle that impairs the ability of the heart to pump blood to the rest of the body, resulting in arrhythmias, backup of blood into the lungs and other parts of the body, and ultimately heart failure. Forms of cardiomyopathy include dilated, or DCM, hypertrophic, or HCM, and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. DCM is characterized by left ventricular enlargement and systolic dysfunction leading to heart failure and/or arrhythmia with significantly heightened risk of sudden cardiac death. DCM is the most common indication for heart transplant and the third most common cause of heart failure, with an annual incidence rate of sudden cardiac death of between 2% to 4%. Approximately 20% to 37% of DCM is estimated to be based on genetic causes. Individual patient prognosis varies, but patients with certain mutation profiles often present with arrhythmia and/or heart failure by approximately age 40 and have an overall severe risk of adverse cardiac events. There is a significant unmet need for gene therapy in DCM given a lack of available disease-modifying therapies and a high morbidity/mortality with burdensome standard-of-care for these patients.
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About BAG3-mediated DCM
Our lead cardiac program is directed to BAG3-mediated dilated cardiomyopathy. BAG3-mediated DCM is a rare cardiac disease and is characterized by mutations in the BAG3 gene. The BAG3 gene codes for the BCL-2-associated athanogene 3, or BAG3, protein. Sufficient levels of functional BAG3 are required for healthy cardiac function. BAG3 gene mutations lead to reduced BAG3 protein levels and ultimately DCM. Deletions and truncations in the BAG3 protein that result in haplo-insufficiency have been associated with the development of dilated cardiomyopathy resulting from myofilament damage, poor contraction, left ventricular dysfunction, dilatation and heart failure. Mechanistically, these physiologic impairments are caused from decreased BAG3 protein levels leading to heat shock protein dysfunction and a subsequent build-up of mis-folded, dysfunctional proteins in the sarcomere, which results in poor sarcomere integrity, increased mechanical stress, inflammation, remodeling and fibrosis. BAG3-mediated DCM accounts for approximately 3-4% of all diagnosed cases of DCM, representing a prevalent population of about 29,000 patients in the United States. The most common presentation of BAG3-mediated DCM is dyspnea but can range from leg swelling and fatigue to more severe complications including thromboembolic events, arrhythmias or even sudden cardiac death. Thus, activities of daily life are severely impacted in patients with BAG3-mediated DCM. Once patients are symptomatic, mortality is approximately 25% at one year and approximately 50% at five years. The penetrance of DCM in patients with BAG3 haploinsufficiency is 80% by age 40. There are no approved therapies to address the underlying cause of the disease and the current standard of care relies on symptomatic treatment depending on disease severity/progression. Treating the underlying cause of BAG3-mediated DCM requires expression of functional BAG3 within the heart muscle only.
AVB-401
We are currently developing a preclinical stage candidate, AVB-401, for the treatment of BAG3-mediated DCM utilizing the AAVrh74 capsid and a muscle-specific promoter. Preclinical data in wild type mice indicate that the AAVrh74 capsid and muscle-specific promoter combination show enhanced cardiac biodistribution and expression and decreased liver expression relative to an AAV9 capsid and constitutive promoter combination at doses of 5E13 vg/kg or less. Thus, we believe that AVB-401 has the potential to allow for a more targeted, lower dose systemic AAV therapeutic.
Other Cardiac Programs
We also have two pipeline programs, AVB-501 for DCM and AVB-601 for HCM, that are both in preclinical development to treat undisclosed cardiac indications.
Platform technologies
In addition to our gene transfer candidates, we have development programs focusing on platform technologies, including novel capsid libraries and dual gene expression, a technology that allows us to package multiple transgenes into one vector. These programs are part of our ongoing research efforts to develop innovative technologies that we believe may hold potential to translate into meaningful treatments, and drive future pipeline expansion, which we may seek to out-license to or develop through partnerships and collaborations with other biotechnology companies.
Novel Capsid Programs
Our novel capsid programs are directed toward developing skeletal and cardiac capsid libraries using two strategies designed to enhance skeletal and cardiac muscle tropism. Preclinical data in both wild-type and disease animal models demonstrated that we have developed a library of novel capsids that have shown increased muscle tropism with concomitant decreased liver biodistribution, resulting in improved efficiency compared to AAV9.
We have developed a rationally designed library of novel AAV capsids with the goal of improving skeletal muscle tropism. We approached this through the insertion of unique peptide sequences into traditional capsids and initially evaluated these candidates through an in vitro screening platform. The primary goal of developing this library was to generate capsids that preferentially target and transduce skeletal muscle cells, compared to traditional capsids such as AAV9. Candidate novel capsids were packaged with our microdystrophin transgene under the control of a muscle-specific promoter, such as CK8, and used to transduce muscle cells. Evaluation of microdystrophin expression from in vitro studies performed in mouse muscle cell lines showed multiple-fold increases in numerous novel capsid candidates over AAV9. Further in vitro characterization of these capsids was performed in human Duchenne muscle cell lines. Results from these studies showed similar findings of multiple-fold increases in expression for novel capsid candidates over AAV9.
Non-specific novel capsids were packaged comprised of a bioluminescent protein (luciferase) under the control of a ubiquitous promoter (CMV) in order to allow expression across a wide range of tissue types. These constructs were further evaluated in vivo in both mdx and wild-type mice to understand the potential broader applicability of these capsids for other indications. Results from this study supports preferential targeting of muscle, with increases in biodistribution and expression over AAV9 across muscle tissues and decreased biodistribution and expression compared to AAV9 in the liver, and the potential applicability to a wide variety of indications that may benefit from such a targeting profile, in addition to Duchenne.
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AAV-SLB101, the novel rationally designed capsid being used in our SGT-003 program, was screened in our internal development platform for enhanced muscle tropic capsids. We believe that the properties of this novel capsid may allow for enhanced benefit over therapies using traditional capsids, both in terms of efficacy and safety. We are continuing to further develop this rationally designed novel capsid library. Using both directed evolution and rational design, we are also developing a library of novel AAV capsids with the goal of enhancing cardiac tissue tropism and avoiding liver transduction.
We are using non-human primates, pigs, and mice as selection models to screen libraries at the level of RNA expression. Selection for effective transduction in cardiac tissue across different mammalian species is intended to identify capsid variants that potentially utilize conserved transduction mechanisms and may therefore be more likely to exhibit efficacy in humans.
Manufacturing and Supply
Currently, we are working to develop and optimize a transient transfection manufacturing process for producing drug product for our current and future programs, including SGT-003, AVB-202-TT and AVB-401. This process will build on industry wide accepted practices and is expected to increase the yield, robustness and scalability of our current methods.
SGT-003 is manufactured using transient transfection. We selected a manufacturing process that we believe will be scalable to support clinical and commercial production needs for SGT-003. The transient transfection process was selected in order to efficiently advance SGT-003 along its development timeline. In October 2021, we announced a partnership with a cell and gene therapy-focused CDMO, for the development and clinical stage manufacture of SGT-003.
We plan to manufacture AVB-202-TT and AVB-401 using transient transfection.
Intellectual property
Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to obtain and maintain proprietary or intellectual property protection for our pipeline programs, our platform technologies and other know-how, to operate without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the intellectual property rights of others, and to prevent others from infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating our intellectual property rights. We also rely on patents, trade secrets, know-how, confidentiality procedures and agreements, and continuing technological innovation to develop and maintain our proprietary and intellectual property position.
We own and in-license various patents, patent applications, know-how and trade secrets relating to the development and commercialization of our gene therapy candidates and platform technologies. As of February 2023, our patent portfolio includes both owned and in-licensed patent families relating to our gene therapy programs and platform technologies.
Duchenne
Exclusive of our platform technologies, our Duchenne program includes three patent families with respect to microdystrophin and promoter sequences. We have filed one pending PCT international patent application, and have also exclusively licensed two issued U.S. patents, two pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications, and eleven granted patents and ten pending patent applications in foreign jurisdictions. The issued U.S. patents are projected to expire between 2028 and 2036, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions, and any U.S. patents that may issue from the pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications currently pending or that would be filed based on the PCT application would be projected to expire between 2036 and 2042, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
FA
Exclusive of our platform technologies, our FA program includes two patent families with respect to frataxin. We co-own one pending PCT international patent application, and have also exclusively licensed two issued U.S. patents, one pending U.S. non-provisional patent application and one pending patent application in a foreign jurisdiction. The issued U.S. patents are projected to expire in 2036, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions, and any U.S. patents that may issue from the pending U.S. non-provisional patent application currently pending or that would be filed based on the PCT application would be projected to expire in 2042, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
Cardiac indications
Exclusive of our platform technologies, our cardiac programs include three patent families. We have filed one pending PCT international patent application and co-own two pending PCT international patent applications. Any U.S. patents that may issue that would be filed based on the PCT application would be projected to expire in 2042, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
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Platform technologies
We own or license patents, patent applications and know-how related to various platform technologies. Certain of these technologies may be applicable to one or more of our current or future gene therapy candidates.
Capsid technologies
Our capsid program includes one patent family related to modified AAV capsids. We have filed one pending U.S. patent application and nine pending patent applications in foreign jurisdictions. Any U.S. patents that may issue from the pending U.S. non-provisional patent application would be projected to expire in 2040, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
Multi-packaging technologies
Our multi-packaging platform includes three patent families. We have filed two pending U.S. patent applications and fourteen pending patent applications in foreign jurisdictions and exclusively licensed two granted U.S. patents and one pending U.S. non-provisional patent application. The issued U.S. patents are projected to expire in 2035, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions, and any U.S. patents that may issue from the pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications would be projected to expire between 2035 and 2041, excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
Immune modulation and dosing technologies
Our immune modulation and dosing platform includes two patent families. We have exclusively licensed two U.S. non-provisional patent applications and one foreign patent applications. any U.S. patents that may issue from the pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications would be projected to expire between 2035 and 2040 excluding any patent term adjustments and any patent term extensions.
Substantive prosecution of our patent applications has not yet commenced at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO. We cannot predict whether such pending patent applications will result in the issuance of patents that effectively protect our candidates and our platform technologies, or if such issued patents or any of our licensor’s issued patents will effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive products. In any event, patent prosecution is a lengthy process, during which the scope of the claims initially submitted for examination by the patent offices in various jurisdictions are often significantly narrowed by the time they issue, if they issue at all.
The term of individual patents depends upon the legal term for patents in the countries in which they are obtained. In most countries, including the United States, the patent term is 20 years from the earliest filing date of a non-provisional patent application. In the United States, a patent’s term may be lengthened by patent term adjustment, which compensates a patentee for administrative delays by the USPTO in examining and granting a patent, or may be shortened if a patent is terminally disclaimed over an earlier filed patent. The term of a patent that covers a drug or biological product may also be eligible for patent term extension when FDA approval is granted, subject to certain limitations and provided statutory and regulatory requirements are met (for more information, please see “Business— Government regulation and product approval —U.S. patent term restoration and marketing exclusivity”). In the future, if and when our candidates receive approval from the FDA or foreign regulatory authorities, we expect to apply for patent term extensions on issued patents we may obtain in the future covering those products, depending upon the length of the clinical trials for each product and other factors. There can be no assurance that any of our pending patent applications will issue or that we will benefit from any patent term extension or favorable adjustment to the term of any of our patents.
As with other biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies, our ability to maintain and solidify our proprietary and intellectual property position for our candidates will depend on our success in obtaining effective patent claims and enforcing those claims if granted. However, our owned and licensed pending patent applications, and any patent applications that we may in the future file or license from third parties may not result in the issuance of patents. We also cannot predict the breadth of claims that may be allowed or enforced in our patents. Any issued patents that we may receive in the future may be challenged, invalidated or circumvented. In addition, because of the extensive time required for clinical development and regulatory review of a candidate we may develop, it is possible that, before any of our candidates can be commercialized, any related patent may expire or remain in force for only a short period following commercialization, thereby limiting protection such patent would afford the respective product and any competitive advantage such patent may provide.
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In addition to patents, we rely upon unpatented trade secrets and know-how and continuing technological innovation to develop and maintain our competitive position. We seek to protect our proprietary information, in part, by executing confidentiality agreements with our collaborators and scientific advisors, and non-competition, non-solicitation, confidentiality, and invention assignment agreements with our employees and consultants. We have also executed agreements requiring assignment of inventions with selected scientific advisors and collaborators. The confidentiality agreements we enter into are designed to protect our proprietary information and the agreements or clauses requiring assignment of inventions to us are designed to grant us ownership of technologies that are developed through our relationship with the respective counterparty. We cannot guarantee, however, that these agreements will afford us adequate protection of our intellectual property and proprietary information rights.
We also seek trademark protection in the United States and internationally where available and when appropriate. We currently own U.S. federal registrations for the marks SOLID, SOLID BIOSCIENCES and SOLID BIOSCIENCES logo, as well as registrations in the European Union, United Kingdom, Japan, and Hong Kong for the mark SOLID BIOSCIENCES, registrations in the European Union and United Kingdom for the marks SOLID BIOSCIENCES logo and SOLID GT. We also own pending trademark applications in the U.S. and in foreign jurisdictions for the mark AAVANTIBIO and a pending trademark application in the U.S. for the mark AAVANTIBIO logo.
Strategic partnerships and collaborations/licenses
We have certain obligations under licensing agreements with third parties that include annual maintenance fees and payments that are contingent upon achieving various development, commercial and regulatory milestones. Pursuant to many of these license agreements, we are required to make milestone payments if certain development, regulatory and commercial sales milestones are achieved, and may have certain additional research funding obligations. Also, pursuant to the terms of many of these license agreements, when and if commercial sales of a licensed product commence, we must pay royalties to our licensors on net sales of the respective licensed products.
University of Washington License Agreement
In 2015, we entered into a license agreement with the University of Washington, acting through UW CoMotion, under which we obtained an exclusive, royalty-bearing, sublicensable, worldwide license under certain patent applications owned by the University of Washington relating to novel micro-dystrophins to develop, manufacture, and commercialize products for use in the treatment of Duchenne and related disease indications caused by a lack of functional dystrophin. We have the right to grant sublicenses to third parties contingent upon written approval by the University of Washington prior to executing such sublicense, which approval may not be unreasonably withheld.
In consideration for the rights granted by the agreement, we paid a one-time, non-refundable license fee, which was recorded as a research and development expense in 2015. We are required to reimburse the University of Washington for costs incurred in applying for, prosecuting and maintaining patents and pay up to an aggregate of approximately $1 million upon the achievement of certain milestones. There were no milestones achieved during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2020, and 2019. In October 2017, the first milestone was achieved under this agreement. The milestone payment was recorded as a research and development expense in the fourth quarter of 2017. In October 2020, the license agreement was amended such that we were required to pay the University of Washington $375 thousand in connection with the execution of the collaboration and license agreement with Ultragenyx, or the Collaboration Agreement, in October 2020. This payment was recorded as a research and development expense in the fourth quarter of 2020. The license agreement was also amended such that we are required to pay an aggregate of approximately $3.4 million upon the achievement of certain milestones. We must also pay royalties of a low single digit percentage of future sales by us and our sublicensees of products developed under the licensed patent rights. In addition, we must pay an annual maintenance fee until certain milestones are achieved, at which time a minimum annual royalty requirement will replace such maintenance fee and will apply to us and our sublicensees.
We are obligated to use our commercially reasonable efforts, consistent with sound and reasonable business practices and judgment, to commercialize the inventions covered by the licensed patent rights and to make and sell products based on that patent as soon as practicable and maximize sales thereof.
The University of Washington controls the prosecution and maintenance of the licensed patents in consultation with us and at our expense. In countries in which we have not requested prosecution or maintenance of licensed patents, the University of Washington may prosecute and maintain such licensed patents at its own cost. We have the first right to enforce such licensed patents at our expense. However, we may not enter into any settlement in any manner relating to the licensed patents without the University of Washington’s prior written consent.
The license agreement remains in effect until the expiration of the last-to-expire patent licensed under the agreement. We may terminate the agreement at any time upon providing sixty days’ written notice to the University of Washington. The
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University of Washington may terminate the agreement upon our uncured, material breach of the agreement or if we enter into an insolvency-related event.
The University of Missouri License Agreement
In 2015, we entered into a license agreement with the Curators of the University of Missouri, or the University of Missouri, a public corporation of Missouri, under which we obtained an exclusive, royalty-bearing, sublicensable, worldwide license under certain patents and patent applications owned by the University of Missouri relating to a novel synthetic microdystrophin gene to make, sell and distribute products for use in the treatment of Duchenne and related disease indications resulting from a lack of functional dystrophin.
In consideration for the rights granted by the agreement, we paid a one-time, non-refundable license fee, which was recorded as a research and development expense in 2015. We were required to reimburse the University of Missouri for costs incurred in applying for, prosecuting and maintaining the licensed patents and pay up to an aggregate of approximately $1 million upon the achievement of certain milestones for each product developed based on the licensed patents.
Under the agreement, in the event we grant a sublicense to another party, we are required to pay the University of Missouri a percentage of the consideration received. The license agreement was amended such that we were required to pay, and did pay, the University of Missouri $0.8 million in February 2021 and $1.3 million in February 2022 as a result of the execution of the Collaboration Agreement with Ultragenyx in October 2020. These amounts were recorded as a research and development expense in the fourth quarter of 2020. The license agreement was also amended such that we are required to make aggregate milestone payments of approximately $1.9 million upon the achievement of certain milestones.
There were no milestones achieved during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021, and 2020. We must pay a royalty of a low single digit percentage of future sales or by its sublicensees of products developed using the licensed patents. In addition, we must pay an annual maintenance fee until certain milestones are achieved, after which time a minimum annual royalty will replace such maintenance fee.
Under the agreement, we granted the University of Missouri a non-exclusive, royalty-free, irrevocable, paid-up license, with the right to grant sublicenses to non-profit, academic, educational or governmental institutions, to practice and use improvements made by us using the licensed patent rights, solely for non-commercial research purposes.
We are obligated to use our reasonable best efforts to introduce products based on the licensed patent rights into the commercial market as soon as possible, consistent with sound and reasonable business practices and judgment, and thereafter to keep such products reasonably available to the public.
The University of Missouri controls the prosecution and maintenance of the licensed patents in consultation with us and at our expense. In countries in which we have not requested prosecution or maintenance of licensed patents, the University of Missouri may prosecute and maintain such licensed patents at its own cost. We have the first right to enforce such licensed patents at our expense. However, any settlement, consent judgment or other voluntary disposition of litigation that materially limits the scope, validity or enforceability of the licensed patent or admits fault or wrongdoing on the part of the University of Missouri must be pre-approved in writing by the University of Missouri. The license agreement remains in effect until the expiration of the last-to-expire patent or the abandonment of the last to be abandoned patent application licensed under the agreement. The University of Missouri may terminate the agreement, or render the license granted thereunder non-exclusive, in individual countries if we and our sublicensees fail to achieve certain milestones. We may terminate the license agreement at any time upon providing six months’ written notice to the University of Missouri and paying a termination fee. Each of the University of Missouri and we may also terminate the agreement for an uncured default or breach of the agreement by the other party. Our ability to cure such breach only applies to the first two notices of such breach provided by the University of Missouri, and thereafter, the University of Missouri may terminate the agreement for our default or breach of the agreement upon thirty days’ written notice without an opportunity to cure such default or breach.
University of Florida License Agreement
In 2020, as amended, AavantiBio entered into license agreements with the University of Florida Research Foundation, Inc., or UFRF. Broadly, the agreements relate to FA. We acquired the agreements in connection with the Acquisition. Under each agreement we obtained an exclusive, royalty-bearing, sublicensable, world-wide license to certain patents and patent applications and a royalty-bearing non-exclusive license under the know-how, to make, have made, use, see, have sold, import and export licensed products. UFRF retains the right to practice the patent rights and know-how for internal non-commercial research, including research sponsored by commercial entities, and educational purposes.
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In consideration for the rights granted under each agreement, AavantiBio paid a one-time non-refundable license fee. In connection with each agreement, we are required to pay an annual license maintenance fee until the first commercial sale of a licensed product after which time a minimum annual royalty will replace such maintenance fees. Under each agreement, we are required to reimburse UFRF for costs incurred in applying for, prosecuting and maintaining patents, pay up to an aggregate of approximately $2.9 million upon the achievement of certain intellectual property, clinical and regulatory milestones for each licensed product under the agreement and pay a low, single digit royalty on annual net sales by us and our sublicensees of licensed products on a licensed-product-by-licensed product basis. For any licensed product covered by both of these agreements, we are only obligated to make one payment for each milestone achieved and royalty payment due. Prior to the Acquisition, AavantiBio paid a single milestone fee related to these agreements in an amount of less than $0.1 million. Under each agreement, in the event we grant a sublicense to another party, we are required to pay UFRF a percentage of the consideration received.
Under each agreement, we have the right to grant sublicenses to third parties through multiple tiers, to the extent we are in compliance with our diligence obligations under the agreement and that sublicensee is subject to the terms of such agreement.
Under each agreement, we are obligated to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize products covered by the licensed patent rights or know-how and to achieve certain regulatory and commercialization milestones within estimated time periods.
Under each agreement, UFRF controls the prosecution and maintenance of the licensed patents in consultation with us and at our expense. In countries in which we have not requested prosecution or maintenance of licensed patents in a particular country or jurisdiction, the license granted to such patent rights will terminate in such country or jurisdiction. We have the first right to enforce such licensed patents at our expense.
Each of the agreements terminates on a licensed product-by-licensed product basis on the later of: (i) expiration of the patent rights covering such licensed product or (ii) ten (10) years from the first commercial sale of such licensed product. After five years, we may terminate an agreement for any reason giving advance written notice and reason for termination. UFRF may terminate an agreement for our uncured default or breach of the agreement. UFRF may immediately terminate an agreement if we bring or assist others in bringing a patent challenge against the licensed patent rights. If UFRF sends us a written demand to terminate a sublicense agreement due to such sublicensee bringing or assisting a patent challenge, UFRF may terminate such agreement if we do not terminate the license with such sublicensee.
Ultragenyx Collaboration Agreement
On October 22, 2020, or the Effective Date, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement with Ultragenyx, to focus on the development and commercialization of new gene therapies for Duchenne. We granted Ultragenyx an exclusive worldwide license for any pharmaceutical product that expresses our proprietary microdystrophin construct from AAV8 and variants thereof in clade E for the treatment of Duchenne and other diseases resulting from the lack of functional dystrophin. We retain exclusive rights to all other uses of our microdystrophin proteins, including under our SGT-003 and SGT-001 programs.
We have conducted and may conduct in the future certain activities agreed to by the parties with respect to the development of licensed products. Ultragenyx is obligated to reimburse us for personnel and out-of-pocket costs that we incur in conducting such development activities. Otherwise, Ultragenyx has decision-making authority with respect to the development, manufacturing and commercialization of licensed products. In connection with the execution of the Collaboration Agreement, we also entered into a stock purchase agreement and an investor agreement with Ultragenyx, pursuant to which we issued and sold 521,719 shares of our common stock to Ultragenyx at a price of $76.669 per share for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $40.0 million. The shares purchased by Ultragenyx were subject to a lock-up period until the earliest to occur of (i) 18 months from the closing date, (ii) the termination of the Collaboration Agreement or (iii) other specified events. Pursuant to the terms of the investor agreement, Ultragenyx agreed that, so long as it holds at least 10% of our outstanding common stock, the shares will be subject to a voting agreement, such that until the earliest to occur of certain specified events, and subject to specified conditions, Ultragenyx will, and will cause its permitted transferees to, vote in accordance with the recommendation of our Board of Directors with respect to specified matters.
Ultragenyx also agreed to pay up to $255.0 million in cumulative milestone payments per product upon achievement of specified milestone events, and tiered royalties on worldwide net sales at low double digit to mid-teens percentages. Upon achievement of proof-of-concept, we have the right to opt-in to co-fund collaboration programs in return for participation in a profit share or increased royalty payments. None of the payments under the Collaboration Agreement are refundable.
For each licensed product for which Ultragenyx decides to initiate a registrational trial in humans, we have the option to fund 30% of the development costs in the United States and European Union for such licensed product and forgo the development milestones and regulatory milestones, or the Development Option, and receive tiered royalties on a licensed
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product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis ranging from a mid-teens percentage to a low twenties percentage based on Ultragenyx’s, and any of its affiliates’ and sublicensees’ annual worldwide net sales of each such licensed product.
For each Licensed Product for which we exercise the Development Option, we may also elect to share 30% of the net income and net losses on net sales of such Licensed Product in the United States and European Union, or the Income Share Option. For licensed products for which we have exercised the Income Share Option, we will not be entitled to milestone payments and Ultragenyx will pay us tiered royalties on a licensed product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis ranging from a mid-teens percentage to a low twenties percentage based on Ultragenyx’s, and any of its affiliates’ and sublicensees’, annual net sales of each such licensed product outside of the United States and European Union.
We and Ultragenyx established a Joint Steering Committee, or the JSC. The JSC will, among other responsibilities, review and oversee certain development activities performed under the Collaboration Agreement, including reviewing the development plan and budget for the development activities to be performed by us.
The term of the Collaboration Agreement began on the Effective Date and expires upon the expiration of all payment obligations from Ultragenyx to us under the Collaboration Agreement. Ultragenyx also has the ability to terminate for convenience with prior written notice to us, and either party may terminate for an uncured material breach.
As described in Note 3, the Company entered into the Collaboration Agreement with Ultragenyx for the research, development and commercialization of other pharmaceutical products that express the Company’s MD5 nNOS binding domain form of microdystrophin protein. Ultragenyx is a related party since Ultragenyx is one of the Company’s significant stockholders. During the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company recognized revenue of $8.1 million associated with the Collaboration Agreement. As of December 31, 2022, there was $0 million of deferred revenue related to the Collaboration Agreement. There is $0 million due from Ultragenyx as of December 31, 2022.
Competition
The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapidly changing technologies, significant competition and a strong emphasis on intellectual property. This is also true in treatments of neuromuscular diseases, such as Duchenne, cardiac diseases as well as in gene therapy. While we believe that our focus, strength of team, expertise in gene therapy, scientific knowledge and intellectual property provide us with competitive advantages, we face competition from several different sources, including large and small biopharmaceutical companies, academic research institutions, government agencies and public and private research institutions. Not only must we compete with other companies that are focused on gene transfer technology, but any product candidates that we successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing therapies and new therapies that may become available in the future.
Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, clinical trials, regulatory approvals and product marketing than we do. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies.
We are aware of several companies and research institutions conducting clinical trials of product candidates focused on systemic gene transfer for Duchenne, including Pfizer Inc. and Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc. with product candidates currently in Phase III clinical development, Genethon with a product candidate currently in a Phase I/II/III clinical trial , and REGENXBIO Inc. which has announced that it initiated a Phase I/II clinical trial in the first quarter of 2023. In September 2022, Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc. announced that it had submitted a BLA for its gene therapy candidate SRP-9001 for the treatment of ambulant patients with Duchenne. In February 2023, Reata Pharmaceuticals announced FDA approval of SKYCLARYSTM (omaveloxolone) indicated the treatment of FA in adults and adolescents aged 16 years and older. We are also aware of several companies and research institutions conducting clinical trials of product candidates focused on systemic gene transfer for cardiomyopathy associated with FA, including Lexeo Therapeutics with a product candidate currently in a Phase I/II clinical trial and a Phase IA study sponsored by Weill Medical College of Cornell University.
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Government regulation and product licensure
U.S. government regulation and product licensure
In the United States, biologic products including gene therapy products, such as our lead candidates, are licensed for marketing by the FDA under the Public Health Service Act, or PHS Act, and regulated by the FDA under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FD&C Act, as well as by other federal, state and local statutes and regulations. Both the FD&C Act and the PHS Act and their corresponding rules and regulations govern, among other things, the testing, manufacturing, safety, efficacy, labeling, packaging, storage, record keeping, distribution, reporting, advertising and other promotional practices involving biologic products. FDA approval must be obtained before conducting human clinical testing of biologic products. FDA must license a biologic product before it may be marketed within the United States.
U.S. biologic products development process
A company, institution, or organization which takes responsibility for the initiation and management of a clinical development program for such products is referred to as a sponsor. A sponsor seeking approval to market and distribute a new biological product in the United States must typically secure the following:
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completion of preclinical laboratory tests and in vivo studies according to the FDA’s GLP requirements and applicable requirements for the humane use of laboratory animals or other applicable regulations;
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design of a clinical protocol and submission to the FDA of an application for an IND, which allows human clinical trials to begin unless the FDA objects within 30 days;
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approval by an institutional review board, or IRB, reviewing each clinical site before each clinical trial may be initiated;
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approval by an institutional biosafety committee, or IBC, assessing the safety of the clinical research and identifying any potential risk to public health or the environment;
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performance of adequate and well controlled human clinical trials according to the FDA’s regulations commonly referred to as good clinical practices, or GCPs, and any additional requirements for the protection of human research subjects and their health information, to establish the safety, potency and purity of the proposed biologic product for its intended use;
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preparation and submission to the FDA of a biologics license application, or BLA, for marketing approval that includes substantive evidence of safety, purity and potency from results of preclinical testing and clinical trials, and detailed information about the CMC for the product, reports of the outcomes and full data sets of the clinical trials and proposed labeling and packaging for the product;
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review of the product candidate by an FDA advisory committee, if applicable;
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satisfactory completion of an FDA inspection of the manufacturing facility or facilities where the biologic product candidate is produced to assess compliance with cGMP requirements and to assure that the facilities, methods and controls are adequate to preserve the biologic product candidate’s identity, safety, strength, quality and purity;
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potential FDA audit of the nonclinical and clinical trial sites that generated the data in support of the BLA;
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payment of user fees;
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FDA review and licensure of the BLA; and
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compliance with any post-approval requirements, including the potential requirement to implement a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy, or REMS, and the potential requirement to conduct post-approval studies.
Preclinical Studies and Investigational New Drug Application
Before testing any biologic product candidate in humans, including a gene therapy product candidate, the product candidate must undergo preclinical testing. Preclinical tests, also referred to as nonclinical studies, include laboratory evaluations of product chemistry, toxicity and formulation, as well as in vivo studies to assess the potential safety and activity of the product candidate and to establish a rationale for therapeutic use. These studies are generally referred to as IND-enabling studies. The conduct of certain nonclinical studies must comply with federal regulations and requirements, including GLPs and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal Welfare Act, if applicable.
If a gene therapy trial is conducted at, or sponsored by, institutions receiving NIH funding for recombinant DNA research, prior to the submission of an IND to the FDA, a protocol and related documents must be submitted to, and the study registered with, the NIH Office of Biotechnology Activities, or OBA, pursuant to the NIH Guidelines for Research Involving
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Recombinant DNA Molecules, or NIH Guidelines. Compliance with the NIH Guidelines is mandatory for investigators at institutions receiving NIH funds for research involving recombinant DNA. However, many companies and other institutions, not otherwise subject to the NIH Guidelines, voluntarily follow them.
The clinical trial sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and a proposed clinical protocol, to the FDA as part of the IND. An IND is an exemption from the FD&C Act that allows an unapproved product to be shipped in interstate commerce for use in an investigational clinical trial and a request for FDA authorization to administer an investigational product to humans. Some preclinical tests may continue even after the IND is submitted. The IND becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless the FDA notifies the sponsor of deficiencies that require correction before human studies can begin. The sponsor cannot initiate studies until the FDA notifies the sponsor that the submitted corrections are satisfactory. The FDA may also place the clinical trial on a full clinical hold or partial clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin.
In addition, the FDA may impose a partial clinical hold at any time before or during clinical trials. A partial clinical hold is a delay or suspension of only part of the clinical work requested under the IND (e.g., a specific protocol or part of a protocol is not allowed to proceed; however, other protocols or parts of the protocol are allowed to proceed under the IND). If the FDA requires that progress to the next study is contingent on (i) FDA review of additional data and (ii) subsequent specific permission for the study to proceed, this represents a partial clinical hold.
Human clinical trials under an IND
Clinical trials involve the administration of the biologic product candidate to healthy volunteers or subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators, generally physicians not employed by, or under the control of, the trial sponsor. Clinical trials are conducted under written study protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the clinical trial, dosing procedures, subject selection and exclusion criteria, and the parameters to be used to monitor subject safety, including stopping rules that assure a clinical trial will be stopped if certain adverse events should occur. Each protocol and any amendments to the protocol must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. Clinical trials must be conducted and monitored in accordance with the FDA’s regulations comprising the GCP requirements, including the requirement that all research subjects provide informed consent.
Further, each clinical trial must be reviewed and approved by an IRB at or servicing each institution at which the clinical trial will be conducted. An IRB is charged with protecting the welfare and rights of trial participants and considers such items as whether the risks to individuals participating in the clinical trials are minimized and are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits. The IRB also approves the form and content of the informed consent that must be signed by each clinical trial subject or his or her legal representative, reviews and approves the study protocol and must monitor the clinical trial until completed.
Additionally, some trials are overseen by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the trial sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board or committee, or DSMB. This group provides authorization as to whether or not a trial may move forward at designated check points based on access that only the group maintains to available data from the study. Clinical trials involving recombinant DNA also must be reviewed by an IBC a local institutional committee that reviews and oversees basic and clinical research and utilizes recombinant DNA at that institution. The IBC assesses the safety of the research and identifies any potential risk to public health or the environment.
Human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap or be combined:
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Phase I. The investigational biologic product is initially introduced into a small group of healthy human subjects and tested for safety, dosage tolerance, absorption, metabolism, distribution, excretion and, if possible, to gain an early understanding of its effectiveness. In the case of some product candidates for severe or life-threatening diseases, especially when the product candidate may be too inherently toxic to ethically administer to healthy volunteers, the initial human testing is often conducted in patients. Phase I clinical trials of gene therapies are typically conducted in patients rather than healthy volunteers.
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Phase II. The biologic product candidate is evaluated in a limited patient population to identify possible adverse effects and safety risks, to preliminarily evaluate the efficacy of the product for specific targeted diseases and to determine dosage tolerance, optimal dosage and dosing schedule.
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Phase III. Phase III clinical trials are commonly referred to as “pivotal” studies, which typically denotes a study that presents the data that the FDA or other relevant regulatory agency will use to determine whether or not to approve a biologic product. In Phase III clinical trials, the investigational biologic product is administered to an expanded patient population, generally at multiple geographically dispersed clinical trial sites in adequate and well controlled clinical trials to generate sufficient data to statistically confirm the potency and safety of the product for
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approval. These clinical trials are intended to establish the overall risk/benefit ratio of the product candidate and provide an adequate basis for product labeling.
Post-approval clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase IV clinical trials, may be conducted after initial approval. These clinical trials are used to gain additional experience from the treatment of patients in the intended therapeutic indication, particularly for long-term safety follow-up.
A clinical trial may combine the elements of more than one phase and the FDA often requires more than one Phase III trial to support marketing approval of a product candidate. A company’s designation of a clinical trial as being of a particular phase is not necessarily indicative that the study will be sufficient to satisfy the FDA requirements of that phase because this determination cannot be made until the protocol and data have been submitted to and reviewed by the FDA. Generally, pivotal trials are Phase III trials, but they may be Phase II trials if the design provides a well-controlled and reliable assessment of clinical benefit, particularly in an area of unmet medical need.
In December 2022, with the passage of Food and Drug Omnibus Reform Act, or FDORA, Congress required sponsors to develop and submit a diversity action plan for each Phase 3 clinical trial or any other “pivotal study” of a new biological product. These plans are meant to encourage the enrollment of more diverse patient populations in late-stage clinical trials of FDA-regulated products. Specifically, action plans must include the sponsor’s goals for enrollment, the underlying rationale for those goals, and an explanation of how the sponsor intends to meet them. In addition to these requirements, the legislation directs the FDA to issue new guidance on diversity action plans.
During all phases of clinical development, regulatory agencies require extensive monitoring and auditing of all clinical activities, clinical data and clinical trial investigators. Annual progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted to the FDA. In addition, sponsors are given opportunities to meet with the FDA at certain points in the clinical development program, including prior to the submission of an IND (Pre-IND meeting), at the end of a Phase II clinical trial and before a BLA is submitted.
Written IND safety reports must be promptly submitted to the FDA, the IRB and the investigators for serious and unexpected adverse events, any findings from other trials, in vivo laboratory tests or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk for human subjects, or any clinically important increase in the rate of a serious suspected adverse reaction over that listed in the protocol or investigator brochure. The sponsor must submit an IND safety report within 15 calendar days after the sponsor determines that the information qualifies for reporting. The sponsor also must notify the FDA of any unexpected fatal or life-threatening suspected adverse reaction within seven calendar days after the sponsor’s initial receipt of the information.
The FDA or the sponsor or its DSMB may suspend a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the research subjects or patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk. Similarly, an IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the biologic product candidate has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients.
Finally, sponsors of certain clinical trials are required to register and disclose certain clinical trial information on a public registry (clinicaltrials.gov) maintained by the NIH. In particular, information related to the product, patient population, phase of investigation, study sites and investigators and other aspects of the clinical trial is made public as part of the registration of the clinical trial. The NIH’s Final Rule on registration and reporting requirements for clinical trials became effective in 2017. Although the FDA has historically not enforced these reporting requirements due to the Department of Health and Human Services’, or HHS’s, long delay in issuing final implementing regulations, the FDA has issued several Notices of Noncompliance to manufacturers since April 2021.
Expanded Access to an Investigational Drug for Treatment Use
Expanded access, sometimes called “compassionate use,” is the use of investigational new drug products outside of clinical trials to treat patients with serious or immediately life-threatening diseases or conditions when there are no comparable or satisfactory alternative treatment options. The rules and regulations related to expanded access are intended to improve access to investigational drugs for patients who may benefit from investigational therapies. FDA regulations allow access to investigational drugs under an IND by the company or the treating physician for treatment purposes on a case-by-case basis for: individual patients (single-patient IND applications for treatment in emergency settings and non-emergency settings); intermediate-size patient populations; and larger populations for use of the drug under a treatment protocol or Treatment IND Application.
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When considering an IND application for expanded access to an investigational product with the purpose of treating a patient or a group of patients, the sponsor and treating physicians or investigators will determine suitability when all of the following criteria apply: patient(s) have a serious or immediately life-threatening disease or condition, and there is no comparable or satisfactory alternative therapy to diagnose, monitor, or treat the disease or condition; the potential patient benefit justifies the potential risks of the treatment and the potential risks are not unreasonable in the context or condition to be treated; and the expanded use of the investigational drug for the requested treatment will not interfere with initiation, conduct, or completion of clinical investigations that could support marketing approval of the product or otherwise compromise the potential development of the product.
There is no obligation for a sponsor to make its investigational products available for expanded access; however, as required by the 21st Century Cures Act, or the Cures Act, passed in 2016, if a sponsor has a policy regarding how it responds to expanded access requests, it must make that policy publicly available. Sponsors are required to make such policies publicly available upon the earlier of initiation of a Phase II or Phase III study; or 15 days after the drug or biologic receives designation as a breakthrough therapy, fast track product, or regenerative medicine advanced therapy.
In addition, on May 30, 2018, the Right to Try Act, was signed into law. The law, among other things, provides a federal framework for certain patients to access certain investigational new drug products that have completed a Phase I clinical trial and that are undergoing investigation for FDA approval. Under certain circumstances, eligible patients can seek treatment without enrolling in clinical trials and without obtaining FDA permission under the FDA expanded access program. There is no obligation for a drug manufacturer to make its drug products available to eligible patients as a result of the Right to Try Act, but the manufacturer must develop an internal policy and respond to patient requests according to that policy.
Special Regulations and Guidance Governing Gene Therapy Products
The FDA has defined a gene therapy product as one that mediates its effects by transcription and/or translation of transferred genetic material and/or by integrating into the host genome and which is administered as nucleic acids, viruses, or genetically engineered microorganisms. The products may be used to modify cells in vivo or transferred to cells ex vivo prior to administration to the recipient. Within the FDA, the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, or CBER, regulates gene therapy products. CBER’s Office of Therapeutic Products is responsible for the review of gene therapy and related products, and the FDA has established the Cellular, Tissue and Gene Therapies Advisory Committee to advise CBER on its reviews. The NIH also advises the FDA on gene therapy issues and other issues related to emerging technologies. The FDA and the NIH have published guidance documents with respect to the development and submission of gene therapy protocols.
The FDA has issued various guidance documents regarding gene therapies, including final guidance documents released in January 2020 relating to chemistry, manufacturing and controls information for gene therapy INDs, gene therapies for rare diseases and gene therapies for retinal disorders, as well as final guidance in October 2022 for Human Gene Therapy for Neurodegenerative Diseases. Although the FDA has indicated that these and other guidance documents it previously issued are not legally binding, we believe that our compliance with them is likely necessary to gain approval for any gene therapy product candidate we may develop. The guidance documents provide additional factors that the FDA will consider at each of the above stages of development and relate to, among other things, the proper preclinical assessment of gene therapies; the chemistry, manufacturing, and control information that should be included in an IND application; the proper design of tests to measure product potency in support of an IND or BLA application; and measures to observe delayed adverse effects in subjects who have been exposed to investigational gene therapies when the risk of such effects is high. For AAV vectors specifically, the FDA typically recommends that sponsors continue to monitor participants for potential gene therapy-related adverse events for up to a 5-year period. Other types of gene therapy or gene editing products may require longer follow up, potentially up to a maximum 15-year period.
Pediatric Studies
Under the Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, or PREA, a BLA or supplement thereto must contain data that are adequate to assess the safety and effectiveness of the product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations, and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. Sponsors must also submit pediatric study plans prior to the assessment data. Those plans must contain an outline of the proposed pediatric study or studies the sponsor plans to conduct, including study objectives and design, any deferral or waiver requests, and other information required by regulation. The sponsor, the FDA, and the FDA’s internal review committee must then review the information submitted, consult with each other, and agree upon a final plan. The FDA or the sponsor may request an amendment to the plan at any time.
For products intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, the FDA must, upon the request of a sponsor, meet to discuss preparation of the initial pediatric study plan or to discuss deferral or waiver of pediatric assessments. In addition, the FDA will meet early in the development process to discuss pediatric study plans with sponsors
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and FDA must meet with sponsors by no later than the end-of-phase 1 meeting for serious or life-threatening diseases and by no later than 90 days after the FDA’s receipt of the study plan.
The FDA may, on its own initiative or at the request of the sponsor, grant deferrals for submission of some or all pediatric data until after approval of the product for use in adults, or full or partial waivers from the pediatric data requirements. The FDA is required to send a PREA Non-Compliance letter to sponsors who have failed to submit their pediatric assessments required under PREA, have failed to seek or obtain a deferral or deferral extension or have failed to request approval for a required pediatric formulation. It further requires the FDA to publicly post the PREA Non-Compliance letter and sponsor’s response. Unless otherwise required by regulation, the pediatric data requirements do not apply to products with orphan designation, although FDA has recently taken steps to limit what it considers abuse of this statutory exemption. Additional requirements and procedures relating to deferral requests and requests for extension of deferrals are contained in the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, or FDASIA. The FDA also maintains a list of diseases that are exempt from the requirements PREA, due to low prevalence of disease in the pediatric population.
Compliance with cGMP requirements
Manufacturers of biologics must comply with applicable cGMP regulations, including quality control and quality assurance and maintenance of records and documentation. Manufacturers and others involved in the manufacture and distribution of such products also must register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies. Both domestic and foreign manufacturing establishments must register and provide additional information to the FDA upon their initial participation in the manufacturing process. Establishments may be subject to periodic, unannounced inspections by government authorities to ensure compliance with cGMP requirements and other laws. Discovery of problems may result in a government entity placing restrictions on a product, manufacturer or holder of an approved BLA, and may extend to requiring withdrawal of the product from the market. The FDA will not approve a BLA unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specification. The PREVENT Pandemics Act, which was enacted in December 2022, clarifies that foreign drug manufacturing establishments are subject to registration and listing requirements even if a biologic undergoes further manufacture, preparation, propagation, compounding, or processing at a separate establishment outside the United States prior to being imported or offered for import into the United States.
Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional preclinical studies and must also develop additional information about the physical characteristics of the biologic product candidate as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product candidate in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. To help reduce the risk of the introduction of adventitious agents or of causing other adverse events with the use of biologic products, the PHS Act emphasizes the importance of manufacturing control for products whose attributes cannot be precisely defined. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other requirements, the sponsor must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality, potency and purity of the final biologic product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested, and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the biologic product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.
Submission and filing of a BLA
After the completion of clinical trials of a biologic product, FDA licensure of a BLA must be obtained before commercial marketing of the biologic product. The BLA must include results of product development, laboratory and animal studies, human studies, information on the manufacture and composition of the product, proposed labeling and other relevant information. In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, a BLA or supplement to a BLA must contain data to assess the safety and effectiveness of the biologic product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may grant deferrals for submission of data or full or partial waivers.
Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, as amended, each BLA must be accompanied by a significant user fee. Under federal law, the submission of most BLAs is subject to an application user fee, which for federal fiscal year 2023 is approximately $3.2 million for an application requiring clinical data. The sponsor of an approved BLA is also subject to an annual program fee, which for federal fiscal year 2023 is approximately $0.4 million. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on BLAs for product candidates designated as orphan drugs, unless the product candidate also includes a non-orphan indication.
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The FDA reviews a BLA within 60 days of submission to determine if it is substantially complete before the agency accepts it for filing, and it must so notify the sponsor of that determination within the 60 days. The FDA may refuse to file any BLA that it deems incomplete or not properly reviewable at the time of submission and may request additional information. In the event that FDA determines that an application does not satisfy this standard, it will issue a Refuse to File, or RTF, determination to the sponsor. The BLA may be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application also is subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review of the BLA.
With filing of the application, the FDA reviews the BLA to determine, among other things, whether the proposed product is safe and potent, or effective, for its intended use, and has an acceptable purity profile, and whether the product is being manufactured in accordance with cGMP to assure and preserve the product’s identity, safety, strength, quality, potency and purity. The FDA may refer applications for novel biologic products or biologic products that present difficult questions of safety or efficacy to an advisory committee, typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, for review, evaluation and a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions.
During the biologic product approval process, the FDA also will determine whether a REMS, is necessary to assure the safe use of the biologic product. REMS use risk minimization strategies beyond the professional labeling to ensure that the benefits of the product outweigh the potential risks. To determine whether a REMS is needed, the FDA will consider the size of the population likely to use the product, seriousness of the disease, expected benefit of the product, expected duration of treatment, seriousness of known or potential adverse events and whether the product is a new molecular entity. A REMS could include medication guides, physician communication plans and elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries and other risk minimization tools. If the FDA concludes a REMS is needed, the sponsor of the BLA must submit a proposed REMS; the FDA will not approve the BLA without a REMS, if required.
In connection with its review of a BLA, the FDA will inspect the facilities at which the product candidate is manufactured. The FDA will not approve the product candidate unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving a BLA, the FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical sites to assure that the clinical trials were conducted in compliance with IND study requirements and GCP requirements to ensure the integrity of the clinical data. cGMP, GLP and GCP compliance requires significant expenditure of time, money and effort in the areas of training, recordkeeping, production and quality control.
With passage of FDORA, Congress clarified FDA’s authority to conduct inspections by expressly permitting inspection of facilities involved in the preparation, conduct, or analysis of clinical and non-clinical studies submitted to FDA as well as other persons holding study records or involved in the study process.
Decisions on a BLA
After evaluating the application and all related information, including the advisory committee recommendations, if any, and inspection reports of manufacturing facilities and clinical trial sites, the FDA will issue either a Complete Response Letter, or CRL, or an approval letter. To reach this determination, the FDA must determine that the expected benefits of the proposed product outweigh its potential risks to patients. This “benefit-risk” assessment is informed by the extensive body of evidence about the product in the BLA.
A CRL indicates that the review cycle of the application is complete, and the application will not be approved in its present form. A CRL generally outlines the deficiencies in the submission and may require substantial additional testing or information in order for the FDA to reconsider the application. A CRL generally outlines the deficiencies in the submission and may require substantial additional testing or information in order for the FDA to reconsider the application. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes; or major, for example, requiring additional clinical trials. Additionally, the CRL may include recommended actions that the sponsor might take to place the application in a condition for approval. If a CRL is issued, the sponsor may either resubmit the BLA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter, or withdraw the application. For those seeking to challenge FDA’s CRL decision, the agency has indicated that sponsors may request a formal hearing on the CRL or they may file a request for reconsideration or a request for a formal dispute resolution.
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If a product receives regulatory approval, the FDA will issue an approval letter. The approval may be significantly limited to specific diseases and dosages or the indications for use may otherwise be limited, which could restrict the commercial value of the product. Further, the FDA may require that certain contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling. The FDA may impose restrictions and conditions on product distribution, prescribing or dispensing in the form of a REMS, or otherwise limit the scope of any approval. In addition, the FDA may require post-marketing clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase IV clinical trials, designed to further assess a biologic product’s safety and effectiveness, and testing and surveillance programs to monitor the safety of approved products that have been commercialized.
The FDA has agreed to specified performance goals in the review of BLAs under the PDUFA. One such goal is to review standard BLAs in ten months after the FDA accepts the BLA for filing, and priority BLAs in six months, whereupon a review decision is to be made. The FDA does not always meet its PDUFA goal dates for standard and priority BLAs and its review goals are subject to change from time to time. The review process and the PDUFA goal date may be extended by three months if the FDA requests or the BLA sponsor otherwise provides additional information or clarification regarding information already provided in the submission within the last three months before the PDUFA goal date.
Biosimilars and Reference Product Exclusivity
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the companion Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, or the Health Care Reform Law, which was signed into law on March 23, 2010, included a subtitle called the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009, or BPCIA. That Act established a regulatory scheme authorizing the FDA to approve biosimilars and interchangeable biosimilars.
Under the BPCIA, a manufacturer may submit an application for licensure of a biologic product that is “biosimilar to” or “interchangeable with” a previously approved biological product or “reference product.” In order for the FDA to approve a biosimilar product, it must find that there are no clinically meaningful differences between the reference product and proposed biosimilar product in terms of safety, purity and potency. For the FDA to approve a biosimilar product as interchangeable with a reference product, the agency must find that the biosimilar product can be expected to produce the same clinical results as the reference product, and (for products administered multiple times) that the biologic and the reference biologic may be switched after one has been previously administered without increasing safety risks or risks of diminished efficacy relative to exclusive use of the reference biologic. In December 2022, Congress clarified through FDORA that FDA may approve multiple first interchangeable biosimilar biological products so long as the products are all approved on the first day on which such a product is approved as interchangeable with the reference product.
Under the BPCIA, an application for a biosimilar product may not be submitted to the FDA until four years following the date of approval of the reference product. The FDA may not approve a biosimilar product until 12 years from the date on which the reference product was approved. Even if a product is considered to be a reference product eligible for exclusivity, another company could market a competing version of that product if the FDA approves a full BLA for such product containing the sponsor’s own preclinical data and data from adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity and potency of their product. The BPCIA also created certain exclusivity periods for biosimilars approved as interchangeable products. There have been recent government proposals to reduce the 12-year reference product exclusivity period, but none has been enacted to date. Since passage of the BPCIA, many states have passed laws or amendments to laws, which address pharmacy practices involving biosimilar products.
As of December 27, 2020 (enacted as part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021), the “patent dance” lists became public information as listed in the Purple Book (FDA’s “Database of Licensed Biological Products”). In particular, reference product BLA holders must submit to the FDA within 30 days of exchanging a patent list (patents with expiry dates) with a biosimilar applicant, as well as any supplemental lists. This information was previously maintained a confidential as between the BLA holder and biosimilar applicant. Despite publication of these lists, a BLA holder may assert other patents against future filers, and does not exclude enforcement of newly granted patents.
Additionally, under the Act, the FDA must now publish in the Purple Book the following information about patented biological products:
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a list of each biological product, by nonproprietary name, for which a biologics license is in effect;
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the date of licensure and the application number;
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the licensure status and, as available, the marketing status; and
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exclusivity periods.
The FDA must publish in the Purple Book all of the above information in the first instance within 180 days of enactment and update every 30 days.
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The FDA has approved a number of biosimilars and several interchangeable biosimilar products. The FDA has also issued numerous guidance documents outlining its approach to reviewing and licensing biosimilars and interchangeable biosimilars under the PHS Act.
Pediatric exclusivity
Pediatric exclusivity is another type of non-patent exclusivity in the United States and, if granted, provides for the attachment of an additional six months of regulatory exclusivity to the term of any existing regulatory exclusivity, including reference product and orphan exclusivity. This six-month exclusivity may be granted if an application sponsor submits pediatric data that fairly respond to a written request from the FDA for such data. The data do not need to show the product to be effective in the pediatric population studied; rather, if the clinical trial is deemed to fairly respond to the FDA’s request, the additional protection is granted. If reports of requested pediatric studies are submitted to and accepted by the FDA within the statutory time limits, whatever statutory or regulatory periods of exclusivity cover the product are extended by six months. Thus, pediatric exclusivity adds six months to existing exclusivity periods applicable to biological products under the BPCIA—namely, the four-year period during which the FDA will not consider an application for a biosimilar product, and the 12-year period during which the FDA will not approve a biosimilar application.
Orphan drug designation and exclusivity
Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may designate a biologic product as an “orphan drug” if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition (generally meaning that it affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more in cases in which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making a biologic product available in the United States for treatment of the disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product). Orphan product designation must be requested before submitting a BLA. After the FDA grants orphan product designation, the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. Orphan product designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.
If a product with orphan status receives the first FDA approval for the disease or condition for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, meaning that the FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug or biologic product for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as if the party holding the exclusivity fails to assure the availability of sufficient quantities of the drug to meet the needs of patients with the disease or condition for which the drug was designated. In addition, the FDA may not approve other applications to market the same drug or biologic product for the same indication for seven years unless the sponsor of the other product demonstrates that its product is clinically superior to the product with orphan drug exclusivity. Under Omnibus legislation enacted in December 2020, this clinical superiority requirement applies to drugs and biologics that received orphan drug designation before enactment of the FDA Reauthorization Act in 2017, but have not yet been approved or licensed by FDA.
Orphan exclusivity does not block the approval of a different product for the same rare disease or condition, nor does it block the approval of the same product for different indications. In particular, the concept of what constitutes the "same drug" for purposes of orphan drug exclusivity remains in flux in the context of gene therapies, and the FDA issued final guidance in September 2021 suggesting that it would not consider two gene therapy products to be different drugs solely based on minor differences in the transgenes or vectors. If a product designated as an orphan drug ultimately receives marketing approval for an indication broader than what was designated in its orphan drug application, it may not be entitled to exclusivity. Orphan medicinal product status in the European Union has similar, but not identical, benefits.
In September 2021, the Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit held that, for the purpose of determining the scope of market exclusivity, the term “same disease or condition” in the statute means the designated “rare disease or condition” and could not be interpreted by the FDA to mean the “indication or use.” Thus, the court concluded, orphan drug exclusivity applies to the entire designated disease or condition rather than the “indication or use.” Although there have been legislative proposals to overrule this decision, they have not been enacted into law. On January 23, 2023, FDA announced that, in matters beyond the scope of that court order, FDA will continue to apply its existing regulations tying orphan-drug exclusivity to the uses or indications for which the orphan drug was approved.
Expedited development and review programs
The FDA is authorized to expedite the review of BLAs in several ways. Under the Fast Track program, the sponsor of a biologic product candidate may request the FDA to designate the product for a specific indication as a Fast Track product concurrent with or after the filing of the IND. Biologic products are eligible for Fast Track designation if they are intended to treat a serious or life-threatening condition and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs for the condition. Fast Track designation applies to the combination of the product candidate and the specific indication for which it is being studied. In addition to other benefits, such as the ability to have greater interactions with the FDA, the FDA may initiate review of sections of a Fast Track BLA before the application is complete, a process known as rolling review.
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Any product submitted to the FDA for marketing, including under a Fast Track program, may be eligible for other types of FDA programs intended to expedite development and review, such as breakthrough therapy designation, priority review and accelerated approval.
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Breakthrough therapy designation. To qualify for the breakthrough therapy program, product candidates must be intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence must indicate that such product candidates may demonstrate substantial improvement on one or more clinically significant endpoints over existing therapies. The FDA will seek to ensure the sponsor of a breakthrough therapy product candidate receives intensive guidance on an efficient drug development program, intensive involvement of senior managers and experienced staff on a proactive, collaborative and cross-disciplinary review and rolling review.
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Priority review. A product candidate is eligible for priority review if it treats a serious condition and, if approved, it would be a significant improvement in the safety or effectiveness of the treatment, diagnosis or prevention compared to marketed products. FDA aims to complete its review of priority review applications within six months as opposed to 10 months for standard review.
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Accelerated approval. Drug or biologic products studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening illnesses and that provide meaningful therapeutic benefit over existing treatments may receive accelerated approval. Accelerated approval means that a product candidate may be approved on the basis of adequate and well controlled clinical trials establishing that the product candidate has an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict a clinical benefit, or on the basis of an effect on a clinical endpoint other than survival or irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity and prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. As a condition of approval, the FDA may require that a sponsor of a drug or biologic product candidate receiving accelerated approval perform adequate and well controlled post-marketing clinical trials. In addition, the FDA currently requires as a condition for accelerated approval pre-approval of promotional materials.
With passage of FDORA, Congress modified certain provisions governing accelerated approval of drug and biologic products. Specifically, the new legislation authorized the FDA to: require a sponsor to have its confirmatory clinical trial underway before accelerated approval is awarded, require a sponsor of a product granted accelerated approval to submit progress reports on its post-approval studies to FDA every six months (until the study is completed) and use expedited procedures to withdraw accelerated approval of an NDA or BLA after the confirmatory trial fails to verify the product’s clinical benefit. Further, FDORA requires the agency to publish on its website “the rationale for why a post-approval study is not appropriate or necessary” whenever it decides not to require such a study upon granting accelerated approval.
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Regenerative advanced therapy. With passage of the Cures Act in December 2016, Congress authorized the FDA to accelerate review and approval of products designated as regenerative advanced therapies. A product is eligible for this designation if it is a regenerative medicine therapy that is intended to treat, modify, reverse or cure a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product candidate has the potential to address unmet medical needs for such disease or condition. The benefits of a regenerative advanced therapy designation include early interactions with the FDA to expedite development and review, benefits available to breakthrough therapies, potential eligibility for priority review and accelerated approval based on surrogate or intermediate endpoints.
None of these expedited programs change the standards for approval but they may help expedite the development or approval process of product candidates.
Rare Pediatric Disease Designation and Priority Review Vouchers
In 2012, Congress enacted the FDASIA, requiring the FDA to award priority review vouchers, or PRVs, to sponsors of certain rare pediatric disease product applications. This program is designed to encourage development of new drug and biological products for prevention and treatment of “rare pediatric diseases” by, upon initial approval of an application meeting certain specified criteria, providing companies with a voucher that can be redeemed to receive a priority review of a subsequent marketing application for a different product. The sponsor of a rare pediatric disease product receiving a PRV may sell or otherwise transfer the voucher to another company. The voucher may be further transferred any number of times before the voucher is used, as long as the sponsor making the transfer has not yet submitted an application relying on the priority review voucher. The FDA may also revoke any PRV if the rare pediatric disease product for which the voucher was awarded is not marketed in the United States within one year following the date of approval.
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In order to receive a PRV upon BLA or NDA approval, the product must receive designation from the FDA as a product for a rare pediatric disease prior to submission of the marketing application. A “rare pediatric disease” is a disease that is serious or life-threatening, in which the serious or life-threatening manifestations primarily affect individuals aged from birth to 18 years and affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States, or affects more than 200,000 people in the United States but there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making available in the United States a product for such disease or condition will be recovered from sales in the United States of such product. In addition to receiving rare pediatric disease designation, in order to receive a PRV, the NDA or BLA must be given priority review, rely on clinical data derived from studies examining a pediatric population and dosages of the product intended for that population, not seek approval for a different adult indication in the original rare pediatric disease product application and be for a product that does not include a previously approved active ingredient.
The Rare Pediatric Disease PRV program was scheduled to expire after September 30, 2020. After that, only drugs designated as rare pediatric treatments and approved by the FDA by October 1, 2022, could receive a voucher. In December 2020, however, Congress renewed the program as part of the 2021 Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Consolidated Appropriations Act through the federal fiscal year 2024. Thus, under the current statutory sunset provisions, FDA may only award PRVs for approved rare pediatric disease product applications if sponsors have rare pediatric disease designation for the drug granted by September 30, 2024. The FDA may not award any rare pediatric disease PRVs after September 30, 2026.
Post-approval requirements
After regulatory approval of a product is obtained, there may be a number of post-approval requirements. For example, as a condition of approval of a BLA, the FDA may require post-marketing testing and surveillance to monitor the product’s safety or efficacy. In addition, holders of an approved BLA are required to keep extensive records, to report certain adverse reactions and production problems to the FDA, to provide updated safety and efficacy information and to comply with requirements concerning advertising and promotional labeling for their products. Also, quality control and manufacturing procedures must continue to conform to cGMP regulations and practices, as well as the manufacturing conditions of approval set forth in the BLA. The FDA periodically inspects manufacturing facilities to assess compliance with cGMP requirements, which impose certain procedural, substantive and recordkeeping requirements. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain compliance with cGMP and other aspects of regulatory compliance.
The FDA strictly regulates marketing, labeling, advertising and promotion of products that are placed on the market. Products may be promoted only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved label. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses, and a company that is found to have improperly promoted off-label uses may be subject to significant liability. In September 2021, the FDA published final regulations which describe the types of evidence that the agency will consider in determining the intended use of a biologic product.
It may be permissible, under very specific, narrow conditions, for a manufacturer to engage in nonpromotional, non-misleading communication regarding off-label information, such as distributing scientific or medical journal information. Moreover, with passage of the Pre-Approval Information Exchange Act in December 2022, sponsors of products that have not been approved may proactively communicate to payors certain information about products in development to help expedite patient access upon product approval. Previously, such communications were permitted under FDA guidance but the new legislation explicitly provides protection to sponsors who convey certain information about products in development to payors, including unapproved uses of approved products.
If a company is found to have promoted off-label uses, it may become subject to adverse public relations and administrative and judicial enforcement by the FDA, the Department of Justice, or the Office of the Inspector General of the Department of Health and Human Services, as well as state authorities. This could subject a company to a range of penalties that could have a significant commercial impact, including civil and criminal fines and agreements that materially restrict the manner in which a company promotes or distributes drug products.
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U.S. patent term restoration
Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of FDA approval of product candidates, some of a sponsor’s U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, or the Hatch-Waxman Amendments. The Hatch-Waxman Amendments permit a patent restoration term of up to five years as compensation for patent terms lost during product development and FDA regulatory review process. However, patent term restoration cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. The patent term restoration period generally is one-half the time between the effective date of an IND and the submission date of a BLA plus the time between the submission date of a BLA and the approval of that application. Only one patent applicable to an approved biologic product is eligible for the extension, the application for the extension must be submitted prior to the expiration of the patent, and only those claims covering the approved drug, a method for using it or a method for manufacturing it may be extended. Moreover, a given patent may only be extended once based on a single product. The USPTO in consultation with the FDA, reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration.
Government regulation outside of the U.S.
In addition to regulations in the United States, a manufacturer is subject to a variety of regulations in foreign jurisdictions to the extent it chooses to sell any products in those foreign countries. Even if a manufacturer obtains FDA approval of a product, it must still obtain the requisite approvals from regulatory authorities in foreign countries prior to the commencement of clinical trials or marketing of the product in those countries. Because biologically sourced materials are subject to unique contamination risks, their use may also be restricted in some countries.
Clinical trial approval in the European Union
On January 31, 2022, the new Clinical Trials Regulation (EU) No 536/2014 became effective in the European Union and replaced the prior Clinical Trials Directive 2001/20/EC. The new regulation aims at simplifying and streamlining the authorization, conduct and transparency of clinical trials in the European Union. Under the new coordinated procedure for the approval of clinical trials, the sponsor of a clinical trial to be conducted in more than one Member State of the European Union, or EU Member State, will only be required to submit a single application for approval. The submission will be made through the Clinical Trials Information System, a new clinical trials portal overseen by the EMA and available to clinical trial sponsors, competent authorities of the EU Member States and the public.
Beyond streamlining the process, the new Regulation includes a single set of documents to be prepared and submitted for the application as well as simplified reporting procedures for clinical trial sponsors, and a harmonized procedure for the assessment of applications for clinical trials, which is divided in two parts. Part I is assessed by the competent authorities of all EU Member States in which an application for authorization of a clinical trial has been submitted (Member States concerned). Part II is assessed separately by each Member State concerned. Strict deadlines have been established for the assessment of clinical trial applications. The role of the relevant ethics committees in the assessment procedure will continue to be governed by the national law of the concerned EU Member State. However, overall related timelines will be defined by the Clinical Trials Regulation.
The new regulation did not change the preexisting requirement that a sponsor must obtain prior approval from the competent national authority of the EU Member State in which the clinical trial is to be conducted. If the clinical trial is conducted in different EU Member States, the competent authorities in each of these EU Member States must provide their approval for the conduct of the clinical trial. Furthermore, the sponsor may only start a clinical trial at a specific study site after the applicable ethics committee has issued a favorable opinion.
Parties conducting certain clinical studies must, as in the U.S., post clinical trial information in the European Union at the EudraCT website: https://eudract.ema.europa.eu.
PRIME designation
In March 2016, the EMA, launched the PRIority MEdicines, or PRIME, initiative to foster research and development of medicines that may offer a major therapeutic advantage over existing treatments, or benefit patients without treatment options. PRIME aims to strengthen clinical trial designs to facilitate the generation of high-quality data for the evaluation of an application for marketing authorization. To be accepted for PRIME, a medicine has to show its potential to benefit patients
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with unmet medical needs based on preclinical and/or early clinical data. These medicines are considered priority medicines within the European Union.
After an investigational candidate has been selected for PRIME, developers are assigned a rapporteur from the Committee for Human Medicinal Products, or CHMP, to provide continuous support and help to build knowledge ahead of a marketing authorization application, or MAA. A multidisciplinary group of experts will provide broader guidance on the overall development plan and regulatory strategy of the product. Companies are also eligible for accelerated assessment at the time of their regulatory application.
Pediatric Studies
Sponsors developing a new medicinal product must agree upon a Pediatric Investigation Plan, or PIP, with the EMA’s pediatric committee, or PDCO, and must conduct pediatric clinical trials in accordance with that PIP, unless a waiver applies (e.g., because the relevant disease or condition occurs only in adults). The PIP sets out the timing and measures proposed to generate data to support a pediatric indication of the drug for which marketing authorization is being sought. The marketing authorization application for the product must include the results of pediatric clinical trials conducted in accordance with the PIP, unless a waiver applies, or a deferral has been granted by the PDCO of the obligation to implement some or all of the measures of the PIP until there are sufficient data to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of the product in adults, in which case the pediatric clinical trials must be completed at a later date.
Marketing authorization
In the European Union, marketing authorizations for medicinal products may be obtained through several different procedures founded on the same basic regulatory process.
The centralized procedure provides for the grant of a single marketing authorization by the European Commission that is valid across the European Economic Area (i.e., the EU as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway). The centralized procedure is compulsory for medicinal products produced by certain biotechnological processes, products designated as orphan medicinal products, and products with a new active substance indicated for the treatment of certain diseases. It is optional for those products that are highly innovative or for which a centralized process is in the interest of patients. Under the centralized procedure in the European Union, the maximum timeframe for the evaluation of an MAA is 210 days, excluding clock stops, when additional written or oral information is to be provided by the sponsor in response to questions asked by the CHMP. Accelerated evaluation may be granted by the CHMP in exceptional cases. These are defined as circumstances in which a medicinal product is expected to be of a “major public health interest.” Three cumulative criteria must be fulfilled in such circumstances: the seriousness of the disease, such as severely disabling or life-threatening diseases, to be treated; the absence or insufficiency of an appropriate alternative therapeutic approach; and anticipation of high therapeutic benefit. In these circumstances, the EMA ensures that the opinion of the CHMP is given within 150 days.
The EMA’s Committee for Advanced Therapies, or CAT, is responsible for assessing the quality, safety and efficacy of advanced-therapy medicinal products. Advanced-therapy medical products include gene therapy medicine, somatic cell therapy medicines and tissue-engineered medicines. The role of the CAT is to prepare a draft opinion on an application for marketing authorization for a gene therapy medicinal candidate that is submitted to the EMA. In the EU, the development and evaluation of a gene therapy medicinal product must be considered in the context of the relevant EU guidelines. The EMA may issue new guidelines concerning the development and marketing authorization for somatic cell therapy medicinal products and require that we comply with these new guidelines. Similarly, complex regulatory environments exist in other jurisdictions in which we might consider seeking regulatory approvals for our product candidates, further complicating the regulatory landscape. As a result, the procedures and standards applied to gene therapy products and cell therapy products may be applied to any of our gene therapy or genome editing candidates, but that remains uncertain at this point.
Specifically, the grant of marketing authorization in the European Union for products containing viable human tissues or cells such as gene therapy medicinal products is governed by Regulation 1394/2007/EC on advanced therapy medicinal products, read in combination with Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, commonly known as the Community code on medicinal products. Regulation 1394/2007/EC includes specific rules concerning the authorization, supervision, and pharmacovigilance of gene therapy medicinal products, somatic cell therapy medicinal products, and tissue engineered products. Manufacturers of advanced therapy medicinal products must demonstrate the quality, safety, and efficacy of their products to EMA which provides an opinion regarding the MAA. The European Commission grants or refuses marketing authorization in light of the opinion delivered by EMA.
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The decentralized procedure provides for approval by one or more other concerned EU Member States of an assessment of an application for marketing authorization conducted by one EU Member State, known as the reference EU Member State. In accordance with this procedure, a sponsor submits an application for marketing authorization to the reference EU Member State and the concerned EU Member States. This application is identical to the application that would be submitted to the EMA for authorization through the centralized procedure. The reference EU Member State prepares a draft assessment and drafts of the related materials within 120 days after receipt of a valid application. The resulting assessment report is submitted to the concerned EU Member States which, within 90 days of receipt, must decide whether to approve the assessment report and related materials.
If a concerned EU Member State cannot approve the assessment report and related materials due to concerns relating to a potential serious risk to public health, disputed elements may be referred to the European Commission, whose decision is binding on all EU Member States. In accordance with the mutual recognition procedure, the sponsor applies for national marketing authorization in one EU Member State. Upon receipt of this authorization the sponsor can then seek the recognition of this authorization by other EU Member States. Authorization in accordance with either of these procedures will result in authorization of the medicinal product only in the reference EU Member State and in the other concerned EU Member States.
A marketing authorization may be granted only to a sponsor established in the European Union. Regulation No. 1901/2006 provides that, prior to obtaining a marketing authorization in the European Union, a sponsor must demonstrate compliance with all measures included in a Pediatric Investigation Plan, or PIP, approved by the Pediatric Committee of the EMA, covering all subsets of the pediatric population, unless the EMA has granted a product-specific waiver, class waiver, or a deferral for one or more of the measures included in the PIP.
In specific circumstances, E.U. legislation on Conditional Marketing Authorizations for Medicinal Products for Human Use, or conditional marketing authorization, enables sponsors to obtain a conditional marketing authorization prior to obtaining the comprehensive clinical data required for an application for a full marketing authorization. Such conditional approvals may be granted for product candidates (including medicines designated as orphan medicinal products) if the risk-benefit balance of the product candidate is positive, it is likely that the sponsor will be in a position to provide the required comprehensive clinical trial data, the product fulfills unmet medical needs and the benefit to public health of the immediate availability on the market of the medicinal product concerned outweighs the risk inherent in the fact that additional data are still required. A conditional marketing authorization may contain specific obligations to be fulfilled by the marketing authorization holder, including obligations with respect to the completion of ongoing or new studies, and with respect to the collection of pharmacovigilance data.
Conditional marketing authorization
Conditional marketing authorizations are valid for one year, and may be renewed annually, if the risk-benefit balance remains positive, and after an assessment of the need for additional or modified conditions and/or specific obligations. The timelines for the centralized procedure described above also apply with respect to the review by the CHMP of applications for a conditional marketing authorization.
The requirements and processes governing the conduct of clinical trials, product licensing, pricing and reimbursement vary from country to country. In all cases, the clinical trials are conducted in accordance with GCPs and the applicable regulatory requirements of the country or countries in which the clinical trial is performed, as well as the ethical principles that have their origin in the Declaration of Helsinki (whichever provides the greater protection to the clinical trial participants).
General Data Protection Regulation
The collection, use, disclosure, transfer, or other processing of personal data regarding individuals in the EU, including personal health data, is subject to the EU General Data Protection Regulation, or the GDPR, which became effective on May 25, 2018. The GDPR is wide-ranging in scope and imposes numerous requirements on companies that process personal data, including requirements relating to processing health and other sensitive data, obtaining consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, providing information to individuals regarding data processing activities, implementing safeguards to protect the security and confidentiality of personal data, providing notification of data breaches, and taking certain measures when engaging third-party processors. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data to countries outside the EU, including the U.S., and permits data protection authorities to impose large penalties for violations of the GDPR, including potential fines of up to €20 million or 4% of annual global revenues, whichever is greater. The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR.
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Compliance with the GDPR will be a rigorous and time-intensive process that may increase the cost of doing business or require companies to change their business practices to ensure full compliance. In July 2020, the Court of Justice of the European Union, or the CJEU, invalidated the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield framework, one of the mechanisms used to legitimize the transfer of personal data from the EEA to the United States. The CJEU decision also drew into question the long-term viability of an alternative means of data transfer, the standard contractual clauses, for transfers of personal data from the EEA to the United States.