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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

Index to Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

Page

Forward-Looking Statements and Other Financial Information 48

Consolidated Company Outlook 48

Industry Trends 49

Summary of Critical Accounting Estimates 55

Acquisitions and Dispositions 63

Results of Operations 64

Investments 89

Liquidity and Capital Resources 105

Adopted Accounting Pronouncements 117

Future Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements 117

Non-GAAP and Other Financial Disclosures 118

Risk Management 121

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Forward-Looking Statements and Other Financial Information

For purposes of this discussion, “MetLife,” the “Company,” “we,” “our” and “us” refer to MetLife, Inc., a Delaware corporation incorporated in 1999, its subsidiaries and affiliates. This discussion should be read in conjunction with “Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements,” “Risk Factors,” “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk” and the Company’s consolidated financial statements included elsewhere herein.

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations may contain or incorporate by reference information that includes or is based upon forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. See “Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” for cautionary language regarding forward-looking statements.

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations includes references to our performance measures, adjusted earnings and adjusted earnings available to common shareholders, that are not based on GAAP. See “— Non-GAAP and Other Financial Disclosures” for definitions and a discussion of these and other financial measures, and “— Results of Operations” and “— Investments” for reconciliations of historical non-GAAP financial measures to the most directly comparable GAAP measures.

Consolidated Company Outlook

Our outlook reflects continued uncertainty around inflation and unemployment in 2024. We expect the U.S. dollar to stabilize around current levels.

Based on the forward yield curve as of December 31, 2023, we expect long-term interest rates to remain largely unchanged in 2024 with the yield curve steepening, as short-term interest rates decline. We believe that our investment portfolio is highly diversified and positioned to perform well in a variety of economic scenarios. See “— Industry Trends — Impact of Market Interest Rates” for discussion of the mitigating actions the Company has taken to reduce interest rate sensitivity, as market interest rates are a key driver of our results.

As of December 31, 2023, we had $5.2 billion of cash and liquid assets at the holding companies which is above the high end of our $3.0 billion to $4.0 billion holding company cash target. In 2024, we expect to maintain this holding company cash target.

Our continued capital stress testing and longstanding commitment to liquidity position us to withstand a variety of economic conditions. We do not expect any material liquidity deficiencies, and we expect to remain able to comply with the financial covenants of our credit agreements. See “— Liquidity and Capital Resources.” We will continue reviewing accounting estimates, asset valuations and various financial scenarios for capital and liquidity implications. See “— Investments — Current Environment” and “Risk Factors” for additional information.

Assuming (i) interest rates following the observable forward yield curves as of December 31, 2023, including a 10-year U.S. Treasury rate of 3.84% at December 31, 2024, (ii) S&P 500 equity index annual return of 5% over the near-term, and (iii) private equity annual returns between 7% to 10% over the near-term which is below our long-term historical returns of 12% and assumes continued pressure in the first quarter of 2024 before trending higher; we expect to maintain the two-year average annual ratio of free cash flow to adjusted earnings, excluding total notable items, at 65% to 75%.

Further, based on the aforementioned assumptions, we are maintaining our target for adjusted return on equity, excluding accumulated other comprehensive income (“AOCI”) other than foreign currency translation adjustments (“FCTA”) and total notable items, of 13% to 15% over the near-term. Lastly, we expect to exceed our goals to generate approximately $20.0 billion of free cash flow and make available an additional $1.0 billion to invest in growth and innovation, over the time period of 2020 through 2024.

Based on our continued focus on expense discipline, building capacity to reinvest in growth initiatives and our overall efficiency mindset, we are lowering our full year direct expense ratio target, excluding total notable items related to direct expenses and pension risk transfers, from 12.6% to 12.3% over the near-term.

Our outlook relies on the accuracy of our assumptions about future economic and business conditions, which can be affected by known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors. We continually review our assumptions, implement mitigation plans, and take precautions. We may revise our outlook as we obtain more information regarding economic conditions, regulatory changes, and other events, and the impact of these events on our business operations, investment portfolio, derivatives, financial results and financial condition.

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Industry Trends

We continue to be impacted by the changing global financial and economic environment that has been affecting the industry.

Financial and Economic Environment

Our business and results of operations are materially affected by conditions in the global financial markets and the economy generally due to our market presence in numerous countries, our large investment portfolio and the sensitivity of our insurance liabilities and derivatives to changing market factors.

We are closely monitoring political and economic conditions that might contribute to global market volatility and impact our business operations, investment portfolio and derivatives, such as global inflation, supply chain disruptions, acts of war and banking sector volatility. We are also monitoring the imposition of tariffs, sanctions or other barriers to international trade, changes to international trade agreements, and their potential impacts on our business, results of operations and financial condition. See “— Impact of Market Interest Rates — Effects of Inflation,” and “— Investments — Current Environment.”

Governments and central banks around the world are using fiscal and monetary policies to address uncertain economic conditions. In the U.S., the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Open Market Committee took various actions in 2023 to promote economic stability and combat inflation, including raising interest rates, although rates have remained steady over the last few months, reflecting lower inflation. The European Central Bank and Bank of England have been taking similar actions. In contrast, the Bank of Japan (“BoJ”) has mostly kept its monetary policy settings on hold, reflecting a more cautious view on growth and inflation. The Japanese yen has weakened against the U.S. dollar as monetary policy divergence has widened between the BoJ and the Federal Reserve Board.

Impact of Market Interest Rates

Market interest rates are a key driver of our results. Increases and decreases in such rates, as well as extended periods of stagnation, may impact our business and investments in various ways.

Effects of Inflation

Management believes that while inflation has not had a material effect on the Company’s consolidated results of operations, except insofar as inflation may affect interest rates, both rising interest rates and inflation will have a neutral to modest impact on our business. See “— Impact of a Rising Interest Rate Environment” and “— Interest Rate Scenarios.”

An increase in inflation could affect our business in several ways. In our group life and disability businesses, premiums increase as compensation levels of our customers’ employees increase. However, during inflationary periods with rising interest rates, the value of fixed income investments falls which could increase realized and unrealized losses, resulting in additional deferred tax assets that may not be realizable. Inflation also increases expenses for labor and other costs, potentially putting pressure on profitability if such costs cannot be passed through in our product prices. Prolonged and elevated inflation could adversely affect the financial markets and the economy generally, and dispelling it may require governments to pursue a restrictive fiscal and monetary policy, which could constrain overall economic activity, inhibit revenue growth and reduce the number of attractive investment opportunities.

Impact of a Sustained Low Interest Rate Environment

Sustained periods of low U.S. interest rates may cause us to:

•Reduce the difference between interest credited to policyholders and interest earned on supporting assets (“gross margin”);

•Reinvest investment proceeds in lower yielding assets and experience higher frequency prepayment or redemption of assets in our portfolio;

•Increase our reserves related to policy liabilities and potentially impair intangible assets;

•Reduce interest expense, change pension and other post-retirement benefit calculations, and change derivative cash flows and market values;

•Change our product offerings, design features, crediting rates and sales mix; and

•Experience changing policyholder behavior, including surrender or withdrawal activity.

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For additional discussion on gross margin and interest rate assumptions, as well as the potential impact of low interest rates, see “— Results of Operations — Consolidated Results — Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2022 — Actuarial Assumption Review;” “Risk Factors — Economic Environment and Capital Markets Risks — We May Face Difficult Economic Conditions — Interest Rate Risks;” “Risk Factors — Business Risks — We May Be Required to Impair VOBA, VODA or VOCRA;” “Risk Factors — Business Risks — We May Be Required to Recognize an Impairment of Our Goodwill or Other Long-Lived Assets or to Establish a Valuation Allowance Against Our Deferred Income Tax Assets;” and “Risk Factors — Business Risks — We May Face Volatility, Higher Risk Management Costs, and Increased Counterparty Risk Due to Guarantees Within Certain of Our Products.”

Impact of a Rising Interest Rate Environment

Periods of rising U.S. interest rates may cause us to:

•Reinvest investment proceeds in higher yielding assets and experience lower frequency prepayment or redemption of assets in our portfolio;

•Decrease the value of our reserves related to policy liabilities;

•Increase interest expense, change pension and other post-retirement benefit calculations, and change derivative cash flows and market values; and

•Change our product offerings, design features, crediting rates and sales mix.

For additional discussion on the potential impact of rising interest rates, see “Risk Factors — Investment Risks — We May Change Our Securities and Investments Valuation, or Take Allowances and Impairments on Our Investments, or Change Our Methodologies, Estimations, and Assumptions.”

Management Actions

To manage the impact of a changing U.S. interest rate environment, we maintain diversification across products, distribution channels, and geographies while proactively evaluating interest rate and product strategies. In addition, we apply disciplined asset/liability management (“ALM”) strategies, including the use of derivatives. Our ability to take such actions may be limited by competition, regulatory approval requirements, or minimum crediting rate guarantees and may not match the timing or magnitude of interest rate changes.

In addition to proactive management strategies, businesses within our Latin America, EMEA, and Asia (exclusive of our Japan business) segments help manage impacts to our consolidated results given their limited U.S. interest rate sensitivity.

For additional discussion on interest rate risk management and our ability to change interest crediting rates or dividend scales, see “Risk Factors — Economic Environment and Capital Markets Risks — We May Face Difficult Economic Conditions — Interest Rate Risks;” “— Risk Management;” and “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk — Management of Market Risk Exposures,” as well as Notes 5 and 6of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Interest Rate Scenarios

To illustrate our sensitivity to U.S. interest rates, we compared the outcome of two hypothetical interest rate environments (the “Declining Interest Rate Scenario” and “Rising Interest Rate Scenario”) relative to our baseline economic assumptions (the “Base Scenario”) through 2026.

The Declining Interest Rate Scenario assumes U.S. interest rates for all maturities decline immediately on January 1, 2024 by 50 basis points compared to the Base Scenario through 2026. The Rising Interest Rate Scenario assumes U.S. interest rates rise immediately on January 1, 2024 by 50 basis points through 2026. Other than changing U.S. interest rates through 2026, all other economic assumptions are equivalent in the Base Scenario, Declining Interest Rate Scenario and Rising Interest Rate Scenario.

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The following table compares the most relevant interest rate assumptions for the dates indicated:

Years Ended December 31,

Hypothetical Impact to Net Derivative Gains (Losses), Market Risk Benefit Remeasurement (Gains) Losses and Adjusted Earnings

We estimate a net favorable impact to net derivative gains (losses) for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Declining Interest Rate Scenario. We hold significant positions in long-duration receive-fixed U.S. interest rate swaps, which are most sensitive to the 10-year and 30-year swap rates, to hedge reinvestment risk. We estimate a net unfavorable impact to net derivative gains (losses) for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Rising Interest Rate Scenario.

We estimate a net unfavorable impact to market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Declining Interest Rate Scenario. Under the hypothetical Declining Interest Rate Scenario, we expect the market risk benefit (“MRB”) reserves to increase due to discounting the future cash flows at a lower rate. We estimate a net favorable impact to market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Rising Interest Rate Scenario. Under the hypothetical Rising Interest Rate Scenario, we expect the MRB reserves to decrease due to discounting the future cash flows at a higher rate.

We estimate a net unfavorable impact to consolidated adjusted earnings for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Declining Interest Rate Scenario. The negative impact of reinvesting cash flows in lower yielding assets is partially offset by lowering interest crediting rates and dividend scales on products, and additional derivative income. We estimate a net favorable impact to consolidated adjusted earnings for 2024 through 2026 for the hypothetical Rising Interest Rate Scenario. The positive impact of reinvesting cash flows in higher yielding assets is partially offset by increased interest crediting rates and dividend scales on products and lower derivative income.

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The following table summarizes the hypothetical impact on net derivative gains (losses), market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses and adjusted earnings for certain of our segments, as well as Corporate & Other, for the Declining Interest Rate Scenario:

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions, net of income tax)

Revenues

Net Derivative Gains (Losses) $ 292 $ (50) $ (23)

Expenses

Market Risk Benefit Remeasurement (Gains) Losses $ 545 $ (7) $ (10)

Adjusted Earnings

Group Benefits $ 3 $ (12) $ (24)

Asia (Japan only) (10) (24) (36)

MetLife Holdings (15) (23) (41)

Corporate & Other (2) (17) (25)

Total Adjusted Earnings Impact $ (50) $ (96) $ (144)

The following table summarizes the hypothetical impact on net derivative gains (losses), market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses and adjusted earnings for certain of our segments, as well as Corporate & Other, for the Rising Interest Rate Scenario:

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions, net of income tax)

Revenues

Net Derivative Gains (Losses) $ (177) $ 25 $ 8

Expenses

Market Risk Benefit Remeasurement (Gains) Losses $ (466) $ 7 $ 10

Adjusted Earnings

Group Benefits $ (3) $ 12 $ 24

Total Adjusted Earnings Impact $ 64 $ 102 $ 148

Segments and Corporate & Other

The primary drivers impacting certain of our segments, as well as Corporate & Other, in the hypothetical interest rate scenarios are summarized below. Our Latin America, EMEA, and Asia (exclusive of our Japan business) segments are excluded given their limited U.S. interest rate sensitivity. For additional information regarding account values subject to minimum crediting rate guarantees, the maturity profile of fixed maturity securities available-for-sale (“AFS”), and the yield on invested assets, see “— Investments,” and Notes 5 and 11 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

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Group Benefits

Declining Interest Rate Scenario. Our group life insurance products are primarily renewable term policies. This provides repricing flexibility to mitigate the negative impact of reinvesting in lower yielding assets.

Our retained asset accounts experience gross margin compression due to minimum crediting rate guarantees. Additionally, we experience gross margin compression from our disability policy claim reserves for which crediting rates cannot be reduced. We use interest rate derivatives to mitigate gross margin compression for both products.

Gross margin compression is limited for our group disability products, which are generally renewable term policies allowing for crediting rate adjustments at renewal based on the retrospective experience rating and the prevailing interest rate assumptions.

Rising Interest Rate Scenario. We reinvest our cash flows from our group insurance products in higher yielding assets, mitigating the impact of (i) higher interest crediting rates on, primarily, our retained asset accounts, and (ii) lower income from our derivative positions used to mitigate low interest rate margin compression.

Retirement and Income Solutions

This business contains both short- and long-duration products consisting of capital market products, pension risk transfers, structured settlements, and other benefit funding products.

The two hypothetical interest rate scenarios do not assume any additional ALM actions we may take to preserve margins.

Declining Interest Rate Scenario. A significant portion of short-duration products are managed on a floating rate basis, which mitigates gross margin compression. Our long-duration products have very predictable cash flows and we use both interest rate derivatives and asset/liability duration matching to mitigate gross margin compression. These mitigating strategies partially offset the negative impact of reinvesting in lower yielding assets. Based on our investment portfolios and expected cash flows, only a small portion of invested assets are subject to reinvestment risk through 2026.

Rising Interest Rate Scenario. Our long-duration products, which have very predictable cash flows, benefit from reinvesting in higher yielding assets, which is partially offset by the negative impact of lower income from derivative positions designed to protect against a low interest rate environment. A significant portion of our short-duration products are managed on a floating rate basis. The negative impact of higher crediting rates on these short-duration products is partially offset by higher income from derivative positions designed to protect against a rising interest rate environment.

Asia (Japan Only)

Declining Interest Rate Scenario. Our Japan business offers traditional life insurance and accident & health products, many of which are U.S. dollar denominated. We experience gross margin compression to the extent our investment portfolios are U.S. interest rate sensitive and we are unable to offset the impact by lowering interest crediting rates. Additionally, we manage interest rate risk on our life products through a combination of product design features and ALM strategies.

Our Japan business also offers U.S. dollar denominated annuities which are predominantly single premium products with crediting rates set upon issuance. This allows for tightly managing product ALM, cash flows and net spreads, which mitigates interest rate risk.

Rising Interest Rate Scenario. For U.S. dollar denominated products, higher reinvestment rates on cash flows from these products more than offset the negative impacts of (i) higher interest crediting rates on such products, and (ii) lower income from derivative positions designed to protect against a low interest rate environment.

MetLife Holdings

Declining Interest Rate Scenario. Our interest rate sensitive life products include traditional and universal life products. Since most of our traditional life insurance is participating, we can mitigate gross margin compression by adjusting the applicable dividend scale. For our universal life products, we manage interest rate risk through a combination of product design features and ALM strategies, including the use of interest rate derivatives. Although we are able to mitigate gross margin compression by lowering interest crediting rates on certain in-force universal life policies, these actions may be partially offset by increased liabilities for policies with secondary guarantees.

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Our annuity products can experience gross margin compression primarily from deferred annuities with minimum crediting rate guarantees. While most of these contracts are either at or slightly above their minimum crediting rate, we use interest rate derivatives to manage the gross margin compression risk.

Our long-term care business experiences gross margin compression as we cannot reduce interest crediting rates for established claim reserves. Long-term care policies are guaranteed renewable, and rates may be adjusted on a class basis with regulatory approval to reflect emerging experience. We review the discount rate assumptions and other assumptions associated with our long-term care claim reserves no less frequently than annually and, with respect to interest rates, set the discount rate based on the prevailing interest rate environment.

Our retained asset accounts experience gross margin compression due to minimum crediting rate guarantees. Most of these accounts are at their minimum crediting rates and therefore we use interest rate derivatives to mitigate gross margin compression.

Based on our investment portfolios and cash flow estimates, approximately 6% of our invested assets each year are subject to reinvestment risk through 2026.

Rising Interest Rate Scenario. Higher reinvestment rates on cash flows, over time, more than offset the negative impacts of (i) higher interest crediting rates, and (ii) lower income from derivative positions designed to protect against a low interest rate environment.

Corporate & Other

Corporate & Other contains the surplus investment portfolios used to fund capital and liquidity needs, certain reinsurance agreements, collateral financing arrangements, and our outstanding debt and preferred securities. For purposes of the two hypothetical interest rate scenarios, the impact on pension and postretirement plan expenses is included within Corporate & Other and not allocated across segments.

Declining Interest Rate Scenario. The negative impact of reinvesting in lower yielding assets, over time, more than offsets the positive impact of lower interest expense on debt, preferred stock dividends and lower pension expense. Although low interest rates result in pension and other postretirement benefit liabilities increasing, the impact is more than offset by the corresponding returns on fixed income investments and results in lower expenses.

Rising Interest Rate Scenario. The positive impact of reinvesting in higher yielding assets, over time, more than offsets the negative impact of higher interest expense on debt, preferred stock dividends and higher pension expense. Although higher interest rates result in pension and other postretirement benefit liabilities decreasing, the impact is more than offset by the corresponding returns on fixed income investments and results in higher expenses.

Competitive Pressures

The life insurance industry remains highly competitive. See “Business — Competition.” Product development is focused on differentiation leading to more intense competition with respect to product features and services. Certain of the industry’s products can be quite homogeneous and subject to intense price competition. Cost reduction efforts are a priority for industry players, with benefits resulting in price adjustments to favor customers and reinvestment capacity. Larger companies have the ability to invest in brand equity, product development, technology optimization, risk management, and innovation, which are among the fundamentals for sustained profitable growth in the life insurance industry. Insurers are focused on their core businesses, specifically in markets where they can achieve scale. Insurers are increasingly seeking alternative sources of revenue; there is a focus on monetization of assets, fee-based services, and opportunities to offer comprehensive solutions, which include providing value-added services along with traditional products. Financial strength and flexibility and technology modernization are prerequisites for sustainable growth in the life insurance industry. Larger market participants tend to have the capacity to invest in analytics, distribution, and information technology and have the ability to leverage the capabilities of new digital entrants. There is a shift in distribution from proprietary to third-party models in mature markets, due to the lower cost structure. Evolving customer expectations are having a significant impact on the competitive environment as insurers strive to offer the superior customer service demanded by an increasingly sophisticated industry client base. Rising demands from stakeholders to address ESG issues have resulted in insurers expanding their sustainability efforts. Legislative and other changes affecting the regulatory environment can also affect the competitive environment within the life insurance industry and within the broader financial services industry.See “Business — Regulation.” In addition to financial strength, technological efficiency and organizational agility, we believe that the ability to adapt to changes in the competitive environment as a result of global market volatility, changing interest rates and uncertain economic conditions is a significant differentiator to success in the life insurance industry and the broader financial services industry, and we are well positioned to compete in this environment.

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Regulatory Developments

In the U.S., our life insurance companies are regulated primarily at the state level, with some products and services also subject to federal regulation. As life insurers introduce new and often more complex products, regulators refine capital requirements and introduce new reserving standards for the life insurance industry. Laws and regulations recently adopted or currently under review can potentially impact the statutory reserve and capital requirements of the industry. Regulators have also undertaken market and sales practices reviews of several markets or products, including equity-indexed annuities, variable annuities and group products. See “Business — Regulation,” “Risk Factors — Economic Environment and Capital Markets Risks — Our Statutory Life Insurance Reserve Financings Costs May Increase, and We May Find Limited Market Capacity for New Financings” and “Risk Factors — Regulatory and Legal Risks — Changes in Laws or Regulation, or in Supervisory and Enforcement Policies, May Reduce Our Profitability, Limit Our Growth, or Otherwise Adversely Affect Us.”

Summary of Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to adopt accounting policies and make estimates and assumptions that affect amounts reported on the consolidated financial statements. Effective January 1, 2023, the Company adopted a new accounting pronouncement related to targeted improvements to the accounting for long-duration contracts (“LDTI”) with a January 1, 2021 transition date (the “Transition Date”). The effects of adoption were therefore applied for years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, as described in Note 1 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. This summary of critical accounting estimates reflects this adoption. For a discussion of our significant accounting policies, see Note 1 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. The most critical estimates include those used in determining:

(iii) investment allowance for credit loss (“ACL”) and impairments;

(iv) estimated fair values of freestanding derivatives;

(v) measurement of goodwill and related impairment;

(vi) measurement of employee benefit plan liabilities;

(vii) measurement of income taxes and the valuation of deferred tax assets; and

(viii) liabilities for litigation and regulatory matters.

Due to the adoption of LDTI, the measurement model for deferred policy acquisition costs (“DAC”) and VOBA changed and the majority of the embedded derivatives met the criteria to be accounted for as MRBs; therefore, we no longer believe that DAC, VOBA and embedded derivatives are critical accounting estimates. LDTI impacted the recognition and measurement of FPBs, MRBs and reinsurance, along with the resulting impacts to deferred income taxes which are described in further detail below. The other critical accounting estimates above were not impacted by the adoption of LDTI and are described below.

In addition, the application of acquisition accounting requires the use of estimation techniques in determining the estimated fair values of assets acquired and liabilities assumed — the most significant of which relate to the aforementioned critical accounting estimates. In applying these policies and estimates, management makes subjective and complex judgments that frequently require assumptions about matters that are inherently uncertain. Many of these policies, estimates and related judgments are common in the insurance and financial services industries; others are specific to our business and operations. Actual results could differ from these estimates.

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Future Policy Benefit Liabilities

Generally, FPBs are payable over an extended period of time and calculated as the present value of future expected benefits and claim settlement expenses to be paid, reduced by the present value of future expected net premiums. Such liabilities are established based on methods and underlying assumptions in accordance with GAAP and applicable actuarial standards. Principal assumptions used in the establishment of FPBs for traditional long-duration non-participating products are expectations related to mortality, morbidity, termination, claim settlement expense, policy lapse, renewal, retirement, disability incidence, disability terminations, inflation, and other contingent events as appropriate to the respective product type and geographical area. These assumptions are reviewed at least annually and updated as needed to reflect our expected experience for future periods. If net premiums exceed gross premiums (i.e., expected benefits exceed expected gross premiums), the FPBs are increased, and a corresponding adjustment is recognized in net income.

Liabilities for unpaid claims are estimated based upon our historical experience and other actuarial assumptions that consider the effects of current developments, anticipated trends and risk management programs.

Traditional non-participating long-duration and limited-payment contracts comprisethe majority of MetLife’s FPBs, inclusive of deferred profit liabilities, as described in Note 4 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. For such contracts, cash flow assumptions are used to project the amount and timing of expected future benefits and claim settlement expenses to be paid and the expected future premiums to be collected for a cohort. Generally, the liabilities for these products are updated retrospectively on a quarterly basis for actual experience and at least once a year for any changes in cash flow assumptions. The change in FPBs reflected in the statement of operations is calculated using a locked-in discount rate. For contracts issued prior to the Transition Date, the Company developed a cohort level locked-in discount rate that reflects the interest accretion rates that were locked in at inception of the underlying contracts (unless there was a historical premium deficiency event that resulted in updating the interest accretion rate prior to the Transition Date), or the acquisition date for contracts acquired through an assumed in-force reinsurance transaction or a business combination. As described in Note 1 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, for contracts issued subsequent to the Transition Date, the upper-medium grade discount rate is locked-in for the cohort and used to discount the estimated cash flows. The Company generally interprets this as a rate comparable to that of a corporate single A discount rate and reflects the duration characteristics of the liability. The FPB for all cohorts is remeasured to a current upper-medium grade discount rate at each reporting period through other comprehensive income (loss) (“OCI”).

Liabilities for universal and variable universal life secondary and paid-up guarantees (“additional insurance liabilities”) are determined by estimating the expected value of death benefits payable when the account balance is projected to be zero and recognizing those benefits ratably over the accumulation period based on total expected assessments. The assumptions used in estimating the secondary and paid-up guarantee liabilities are investment income, mortality, lapse, and premium payment pattern and persistency. In addition, the projected account balance and assessments used in this calculation are impacted by the earned rate on investments and the interest crediting rates, which are typically subject to guaranteed minimums. The assumptions of investment performance and volatility for variable products’ separate account funds are consistent with historical experience of the appropriate underlying equity indices, such as the S&P 500 Index. These assumptions are monitored and updated retrospectively based on market conditions and historical experience on a periodic basis.

Accounting for reinsurance generally presents the income statement effect of direct policies on a net-of-reinsurance basis by using assumptions and methodologies consistent with those used to project the future performance of the underlying direct business. Further, the potential impact of counterparty credit risks is considered when measuring the reinsurance recoverables. We periodically review actual and anticipated experience compared to the aforementioned assumptions used to establish assets and liabilities relating to ceded and assumed reinsurance and evaluate the financial strength of counterparties to our reinsurance agreements using criteria similar to that evaluated in our security impairment process. See “— Investment Allowance for Credit Loss and Impairments.” Additionally, for each of our reinsurance agreements, we determine whether the agreement provides indemnification against loss or liability relating to insurance risk, in accordance with applicable accounting standards. We review all contractual features, including those that may limit the amount of insurance risk to which the reinsurer is subject or features that delay the timely reimbursement of claims. If we determine that a reinsurance agreement does not expose the reinsurer to a reasonable possibility of a significant loss from insurance risk, we record the agreement using the deposit method of accounting.

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We measure market risk related to our market sensitive traditional long-duration non-participating and limited-payment contracts, additional insurance liabilities and reinsurance recoverables based on changes in interest rates and foreign currency exchange rates utilizing a sensitivity analysis. The results of this sensitivity analysis are included in “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk — Risk Measurement: Sensitivity Analysis.” We have also assessed the sensitivities of hypothetical changes in significant assumptions to reported amounts related to our traditional long-duration non-participating and limited-payment contracts, additional insurance liabilities and reinsurance recoverables for products including, but not limited to, those within the disaggregated rollforwards included in Note 4 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, as reflected in the following table:

Traditional long-duration non-participating and limited-payment contracts, additional insurance liabilities and reinsurance recoverables

Increase / (Decrease) (In millions)

Assumptions (2):

Mortality

Effect of an increase by 1% $ (69) $ 8 $ 105 $ (28)

Effect of a decrease by 1% $ 79 $ (8) $ (113) $ 26

Morbidity (3)

Lapse (4)

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(1) FPBs are inclusive of deferred profit liabilities where applicable.

(2) All sensitivities exclude potential changes in our future premium rate assumptions.

(3) For products which are subject to morbidity risk, MetLife applied sensitivities to the incidence rate assumptions only.

(4) For MetLife Holdings long-term care products, the lapse impacts include mortality as both mortality and lapse result in termination of these contracts without any additional benefit payment.

See Note 4of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information, including the significant inputs, judgments, valuation methods and assumptions used in the establishment of FPBs, as well as the effect of changes in such factors on the measurement of our FPBs during the year. See Note 9 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on our reinsurance programs.

Traditional participating contracts comprise a significant portion of MetLife’s FPBs, as described in Note 4 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. For such contracts, original assumptions developed at the time of issue are locked-in and used in all future liability calculations. An additional liability would be required if the resulting liabilities are not adequate to provide for future benefits and expenses (i.e., there is a premium deficiency). For these contracts, MetLife’s risk of adverse experience may be mitigated through adjustments to the dividend scales.

For all insurance assets and liabilities, MetLife holds capital and surplus to mitigate potential adverse experience development. The Company’s approaches for managing liquidity and capital are described in “— Liquidity and Capital Resources.”

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Market Risk Benefits

MRBs are contracts or contract features that guarantee benefits, such as guaranteed minimum benefits (referred to as “GMXBs”), in addition to an account balance which expose insurance companies to other than nominal capital market risk (e.g., equity price, interest rate, and/or foreign currency exchange risk) and protect the contractholder from the same risk. Certain contracts may have multiple contract features or guarantees that meet the definition of an MRB. Those benefits are aggregated and measured as a single compound MRB.

All identified MRBs are required to be measured at estimated fair value, which is determined based on the present value of projected future benefits minus the present value of projected future fees attributable to those benefit features. The projections of future benefits and future fees require capital market and actuarial assumptions, including expectations concerning policyholder behavior. A risk neutral valuation methodology is used under which the cash flows from the guarantees are projected under multiple capital market scenarios using observable risk-free rates. The valuation of these MRBs also includes an adjustment for our nonperformance risk and risk margins for non-capital market inputs. The nonperformance risk adjustment, which is captured as a spread over the risk-free rate in determining the discount rate to discount the cash flows of the liability, is determined by taking into consideration publicly available information relating to spreads in the secondary market for MetLife, Inc.’s debt, including related credit default swaps. These observable spreads are then adjusted, as necessary, to reflect the priority of these liabilities and the claims paying ability of the issuing insurance subsidiaries compared to MetLife, Inc. Risk margins are established to capture the non-capital market risks of the instrument which represent the additional compensation a market participant would require to assume the risks related to the uncertainties in certain actuarial assumptions. The establishment of risk margins requires the use of significant management judgment, including assumptions of the amount and cost of capital needed to cover the guarantees.

Changes in the estimated fair value of MRBs are recognized in net income, except for fair value changes attributable to a change in nonperformance risk of the Company which is recorded within OCI.

The estimated fair value of the net MRB liability may rise in volatile or declining equity markets or in a low interest rate environment. Market conditions including changes in interest rates, equity indices, market volatility and foreign currency exchange rates, variations in actuarial assumptions regarding policyholder behavior, mortality and risk margins related to non-capital market inputs, may result in significant fluctuations in the estimated fair value of the guarantees that could materially affect net income, and changes in our nonperformance risk could materially affect OCI.

We measure market risk related to our MRBs based on changes in interest rates, foreign currency exchange rates and equity market prices utilizing a sensitivity analysis. The results of this sensitivity analysis are included in “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk — Risk Measurement: Sensitivity Analysis.” We have also assessed the sensitivities of hypothetical changes in significant assumptions to reported amounts related to our MRBs for products included within the disaggregated rollforwards in Note 6 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, as reflected in the following table:

MRBs(Liabilities net of Assets) Net Effectto Pre-taxNet Income Net Effect to OCI

Increase / (Decrease) (In millions)

Assumptions:

Mortality

Effect of an increase by 1% $ 1 $ 1 $ (2)

Effect of a decrease by 1% $ — $ (1) $ 1

Lapse

Effect of an increase by 10% $ (29) $ 33 $ (4)

Effect of a decrease by 10% $ 29 $ (33) $ 4

Nonperformance risk

Effect of an increase by 50 bps $ (246) N/A $ 246

Effect of a decrease by 50 bps $ 274 N/A $ (274)

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See Note 6 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information, including the significant inputs, judgments, valuation methods and assumptions used in the establishment of the MRBs, as well as the effect of changes in such factors on the measurement of our MRBs during the year. Also, see Note 13 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on the fair value measurement of MRBs.

Estimated Fair Value of Investments

The estimated fair values of our investments are based on unadjusted quoted prices for identical investments in active markets that are readily and regularly obtainable. When such unadjusted quoted prices are not available, estimated fair values are based on quoted prices in markets that are not active, quoted prices for similar but not identical investments, or other observable inputs. If these inputs are not available, or observable inputs are not determinable, unobservable inputs and/or adjustments to observable inputs requiring significant management judgment, including assumptions or estimates, are used to determine the estimated fair value of investments. Unobservable inputs are based on management’s assumptions about the inputs market participants would use in pricing such investments. The methodologies, assumptions and inputs utilized are described in Note 13 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

For the vast majority of our investments, sensitivity analysis regarding unobservable inputs is not necessary or appropriate, as they are valued using quoted prices, as described above. Quantitative information about the significant unobservable inputs used in fair value measurement and the sensitivity of the estimated fair value to changes in those inputs for the more significant asset and liability classes measured at estimated fair value on a recurring basis is presented in Note 13 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Financial markets are susceptible to severe events evidenced by rapid depreciation in asset values accompanied by a reduction in asset liquidity. Our ability to sell investments, or the price ultimately realized for investments, depends upon the demand and liquidity in the market and increases the use of judgment in determining the estimated fair value of certain investments.

Investment Allowance for Credit Loss and Impairments

The significant estimates and inherent uncertainties related to our evaluation of credit loss and impairments on our investment portfolio are summarized below. See “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk” for information regarding the sensitivity of our fixed maturity securities and mortgage loan portfolios to changes in interest rates and foreign currency exchange rates.

Fixed Maturity Securities

The assessment of whether a credit loss has occurred is based on our case-by-case evaluation of whether the net amount expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost basis. We consider a wide range of factors about the security issuer and use our best judgment in evaluating the cause of the decline in the estimated fair value of the security and in assessing the prospects for near-term recovery. We evaluate credit loss by considering information that changes from time to time about past events, current and forecasted economic conditions, and we measure credit loss by estimating recovery value using a discounted cash flow analysis. We estimate recovery value based on our best estimate of future cash flows, which is inherently subjective, and methodologies can vary depending on the facts and circumstances specific to each security. We record an ACL for the amount of the credit loss instead of recording a reduction of the amortized cost. The evaluation processes, measurement methodologies, significant inputs and significant judgments and assumptions used to determine the amount of credit loss are described in Notes 1 and 11 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. The determination of the amount of ACL is subjective as it includes our estimates and assumptions and assessment of known and inherent risks. We revise these estimates and assumptions as conditions change and new information becomes available. The valuation of our fixed maturity securities portfolio is sensitive to changes in interest rates and the estimated fair value of the portion of our fixed maturities securities portfolio that is foreign denominated is sensitive to changes in foreign currency exchange rates.

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Mortgage Loans

The ACL is established both for pools of loans with similar risk characteristics and for loans with dissimilar risk characteristics, collateral dependent loans and certain modified loans, individually on a loan specific basis. We record an allowance for expected lifetime credit loss in an amount that represents the portion of the amortized cost basis of mortgage loans that we do not expect to collect, resulting in mortgage loans being presented at the net amount expected to be collected. To determine the mortgage loan ACL, we apply significant judgment to estimate expected lifetime credit loss over the contractual term of our mortgage loans adjusted for expected prepayments and any extensions; and we consider past events and current and forecasted economic conditions which are subject to inherent uncertainty and which may change from time to time. The ACL methodologies, significant inputs and significant judgments and assumptions used to determine the amount of credit loss are described in Notes 1 and 11 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. The determination of the amount of ACL is subjective as it includes our estimates and assumptions and assessment of known and inherent risks. We revise these estimates as conditions change and new information becomes available.The estimated fair value of our mortgage loan portfolio is sensitive to changes in interest rates and the estimated fair value of the portion of our mortgage loan portfolio that is foreign denominated is sensitive to changes in foreign currency exchange rates.

Leases, Real Estate and Other Asset Classes

The determination of the amount of ACLon leases and impairments on real estate and the remaining asset classes is highly subjective and is based upon our quarterly evaluation and assessment of known and inherent risks associated with the respective asset class. The evaluation processes, measurement methodologies, significant inputs and significant judgments and assumptions used to determine the amount of ACL and impairments are described in Notes 1 and 11 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements. Such evaluations and assessments are revised as conditions change and new information becomes available.

Derivatives

The determination of the estimated fair value of freestanding derivatives, when quoted market values are not available, is based on market standard valuation methodologies and inputs that management believes are consistent with what other market participants would use when pricing the instruments. Derivative valuations can be affected by changes in interest rates, foreign currency exchange rates, financial indices, credit spreads, default risk, nonperformance risk, volatility, liquidity and changes in estimates and assumptions used in the pricing models. See Note 13 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional details on significant inputs into the OTC derivative pricing models and credit risk adjustment.

See Note 12 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on our derivatives and hedging programs. See also “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk” for information regarding the sensitivity of our derivatives to changes in interest rates, foreign currency exchange rates, and equity market prices.

Goodwill

Goodwill is tested for impairment at least annually or more frequently if events or circumstances, such as adverse changes in the business climate, indicate that there may be justification for conducting an interim test.

For purposes of goodwill impairment testing, if the carrying value of a reporting unit exceeds its estimated fair value, an impairment charge would be recognized for the amount by which the carrying value exceeds the reporting unit’s fair value; however, the loss recognized would not exceed the total amount of goodwill allocated to that reporting unit. Additionally, the Company will consider income tax effects from any tax-deductible goodwill on the carrying value of the reporting unit when measuring the goodwill impairment loss, if applicable. The key inputs, judgments and assumptions necessary in determining estimated fair value of the reporting units include projected adjusted earnings, current book value, the level of economic capital required to support the mix of business, long-term growth rates, comparative market multiples, the account value of in-force business, projections of new and renewed business, as well as margins on such business, interest rate levels, credit spreads, equity market levels, and the discount rate that we believe is appropriate for the respective reporting unit.

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We apply significant judgment when determining the estimated fair value of our reporting units and when assessing the relationship of market capitalization to the aggregate estimated fair value of our reporting units. The valuation methodologies utilized are subject to key judgments and assumptions that are sensitive to change. Estimates of fair value are inherently uncertain and represent reasonable expectations regarding future developments. These estimates and the judgments and assumptions upon which the estimates are based may differ from actual future results. The estimated fair value of the reporting units tested can be impacted by unexpected changes in the legislative, regulatory and macroeconomic environment. Declines in the estimated fair value of our reporting units could result in goodwill impairments in future periods which could materially adversely affect our results of operations or financial position.

In the third quarter of 2023, the Company performed its annual goodwill impairment tests on all reporting units using both qualitative and quantitative assessments. The quantitative assessment utilized the market multiple or embedded value approaches, and, when appropriate, was supplemented with a discounted cash flow valuation based on best available data as of June 30, 2023. The Company concluded that the estimated fair values of all such reporting units, except for EMEA, were substantially in excess of their carrying values. The Company also concluded that goodwill for all reporting units was not impaired.

As part of the annual goodwill impairment testing, the Company tested the EMEA reporting unit for impairment using the market multiple and the discounted cash flow valuation approaches. The estimated fair value of the EMEA reporting unit under these approaches exceeded the carrying value by approximately 16% and 14%, respectively, and, therefore, the EMEA reporting unit was not impaired, but the margin has decreased below what the Company considered a substantial margin. If we had assumed that the discount rate was 100 basis points higher than the discount rate used in the discounted cash flow valuation approach, the estimated fair value of the EMEA reporting unit would have been higher than the carrying value by approximately 9%.

See Note 15 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on our goodwill.

Employee Benefit Plans

Certain subsidiaries of MetLife, Inc. sponsor defined benefit pension plans and other postretirement benefit plans covering eligible employees. See Note 21 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for information on amendments to our U.S. benefit plans. The calculation of the obligations and expenses associated with these plans requires an extensive use of assumptions such as the discount rate, expected rate of return on plan assets, rate of future compensation increases and healthcare cost trend rates, as well as assumptions regarding participant demographics such as rate and age of retirement, withdrawal rates and mortality. In consultation with external actuarial firms, we determine these assumptions based upon a variety of factors such as historical experience of the plan and its assets, currently available market and industry data, and expected benefit payout streams.

We determine the expected rate of return on plan assets based upon an approach that considers inflation, real return, term premium, credit spreads, equity risk premium and capital appreciation, as well as expenses, expected asset manager performance, asset weights and the effect of rebalancing. Given the amount of plan assets as of December 31, 2022, the beginning of the measurement year, if we had assumed an expected rate of return for both our pension and other postretirement benefit plans that was 100 basis points higher or 100 basis points lower than the rates we assumed, the change in our net periodic benefit costs in 2023 would have been as follows:

(In millions)

Increase in expected rate of return by 100 bps $ (79) $ (13)

Decrease in expected rate of return by 100 bps $ 79 $ 13

This table considers only changes in our assumed long-term rate of return given the level and mix of invested assets at the beginning of the year, without consideration of possible changes in any of the other assumptions described above that could ultimately accompany any changes in our assumed long-term rate of return.

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We determine the discount rates used to value the Company’s pension and postretirement obligations, based upon rates commensurate with current yields on high quality corporate bonds. Given our pension and postretirement obligations as of December 31, 2022, the beginning of the measurement year, if we had assumed a discount rate for both our pension and postretirement benefit plans that was 100 basis points higher or 100 basis points lower than the rates we assumed, the change in our net periodic benefit costs would have been as follows:

(In millions)

Increase in discount rate by 100 bps $ (57) $ (4)

Decrease in discount rate by 100 bps $ 47 $ 1

Given our pension and postretirement obligations as of December 31, 2023, the end of the measurement year, if we had assumed a discount rate for both our pension and postretirement benefit plans that was 100 basis points higher or 100 basis points lower than the rates we assumed, the change in our benefit obligations would have been as follows:

(In millions)

Increase in discount rate by 100 bps $ (859) $ (72)

Decrease in discount rate by 100 bps $ 1,015 $ 86

These tables consider only changes in our assumed discount rates without consideration of possible changes in any of the other assumptions described above that could ultimately accompany any changes in our assumed discount rate. The assumptions used may differ materially from actual results due to, among other factors, changing market and economic conditions and changes in participant demographics. These differences may have a significant impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements and liquidity.

See Note 21 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional discussion of assumptions used in measuring liabilities relating to our employee benefit plans.

Income Taxes and Valuation of Deferred Tax Assets

Our accounting for income taxes represents our best estimate of various events and transactions. Tax laws are often complex and may be subject to differing interpretations by the taxpayer and the relevant governmental taxing authorities. In establishing a provision for income tax expense, we must make judgments and interpretations about the application of inherently complex tax laws. We must also make estimates about when in the future certain items will affect taxable income in the various tax jurisdictions in which we conduct business.

The Company considers all available factors, both positive and negative, to determine whether, based on the weight of these factors, a partial or full valuation allowance for categories of deferred tax assets is required. The weight given to these factors is commensurate with the extent to which it can be objectively verified. Examples of factors considered in determining deferred tax asset realizability include past earnings history, projections of taxable income and tax planning strategies, including the intent and ability to hold certain securities until they recover in value. Changes in tax laws and/or statutory tax rates in countries in which we operate could have an impact on our valuation of net deferred tax assets. If there had been a 1% increase in the global effective income tax rate, the change would have resulted in an approximate $84 million increase in the net deferred income tax asset balance at December 31, 2023.

See Notes 1 and 22 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on our income taxes.

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Litigation Contingencies

We are a defendant in a large number of litigation matters and are involved in a number of regulatory investigations. Given the large and/or indeterminate amounts sought in certain of these matters and the inherent unpredictability of litigation, it is possible that an adverse outcome in certain matters could, from time to time, have a material effect on the Company’s consolidated net income or cash flows in particular quarterly or annual periods. Liabilities are established when it is probable that a loss has been incurred and the amount of the loss can be reasonably estimated. Liabilities related to certain lawsuits, including our asbestos-related liability, are especially difficult to estimate due to the limitation of reliable data and uncertainty regarding numerous variables that can affect liability estimates. On a quarterly and annual basis, we review relevant information with respect to liabilities for litigation, regulatory investigations and litigation-related contingencies to be reflected in our consolidated financial statements. It is possible that an adverse outcome in certain of our litigation and regulatory investigations, including asbestos-related cases, or the use of different assumptions in the determination of amounts recorded could have a material effect upon our consolidated net income or cash flows in particular quarterly or annual periods.

See Note 24of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding our assessment of litigation contingencies.

Acquisitions and Dispositions

Acquisitions

Acquisition of Raven Capital Management

In March 2023, the Company completed the acquisition of Raven Capital Management, an alternative investment firm.

Acquisition of Affirmative Investment Management

In December 2022, the Company completed the acquisition of Affirmative Investment Management, a specialist global environmental, social and corporate governance impact fixed income investment manager.

Ownership Increase of PNB MetLife

In February 2022, the Company acquired approximately 15.0% ownership in PNB MetLife India Insurance Company Limited (“PNB MetLife”). As a result, the Company’s ownership in PNB MetLife, an operating joint venture accounted for under the equity method, increased to approximately 47.0%.

Dispositions

Pending Disposition of MetLife Malaysia

For information regarding the Company’s pending disposition of its ownership interests in AmMetLife Insurance Berhad (Malaysia) and AmMetLife Takaful Berhad (Malaysia) (collectively, “MetLife Malaysia”), each an operating joint venture accounted for under the equity method, see Note 3 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Disposition of MetLife Poland and Greece

For information regarding the Company's dispositions of its wholly-owned subsidiaries in Poland and Greece in April 2022 and January 2022, respectively (collectively, “MetLife Poland and Greece”), see Note 3 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Disposition of MetLife Seguros

For information regarding the Company's September 2021 disposition of its wholly-owned Argentinian subsidiary, MetLife Seguros S.A. (“MetLife Seguros”), see Note 3 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Disposition of MetLife P&C

For information regarding the Company's April 2021 disposition of Metropolitan Property and Casualty Insurance Company and certain of its wholly-owned subsidiaries (collectively, “MetLife P&C”), see Note 3 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

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Results of Operations

Overview

MetLife is one of the world’s leading financial services companies, providing insurance, annuities, employee benefits and asset management. In the fourth quarter of 2023, MetLife reorganized from five segments into the following six segments to reflect changes in management’s responsibilities: Group Benefits; RIS; Asia; Latin America; EMEA; and MetLife Holdings. The Group Benefits and RIS businesses were previously reported as the U.S. segment. These changes were applied retrospectively and did not have an impact on prior period total consolidated net income (loss) or adjusted earnings. In addition, the Company continues to report certain of its results of operations in Corporate & Other. See“Business — Segments and Corporate & Other” and Note 2 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for further information on the Company’s segments and Corporate & Other.

Reinsurance Transaction

In November 2023, the Company completed a risk transfer transaction with subsidiaries of Global Atlantic Financial Group, a retirement and life insurance company, to reinsure an in-force block of universal life, variable universal life, universal life with secondary guarantees, and fixed annuities, which was reported in the MetLife Holdings segment. See Note 9 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for further information.

Key Financial Highlights

•Net income available to MetLife, Inc.’s common shareholders was $1.4 billion, $5.1 billion and $6.7 billion for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

•Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders was $5.5 billion, $5.8 billion and $7.9 billion for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

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Consolidated Results

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions)

Revenues

Universal life and investment-type product policy fees 5,152 5,225 5,244

Expenses

Policyholder benefits and claims and policyholder dividends 45,212 50,213 43,998

Policyholder liability remeasurement (gains) losses (45) 114 (172)

Market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses (994) (3,674) (1,237)

Interest credited to policyholder account balances 7,860 3,894 5,571

Amortization of negative VOBA (26) (29) (35)

Other expenses, net of capitalization of DAC 9,739 9,119 9,096

Income (loss) before provision for income tax 2,162 6,364 8,518

Provision for income tax expense (benefit) 560 1,062 1,642

Less: Net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests 24 18 21

Net income (loss) attributable to MetLife, Inc. 1,578 5,284 6,855

Preferred stock redemption premium — — 6

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2022

Net income (loss) available to MetLife, Inc.’s common shareholders- Decreased $3.7 billion primarily due to the following:

Net Investment Gains (Losses)(1)- Unfavorable change of $1.6 billion ($1.2 billion, net of income tax):

•Impairment losses in 2023 for investments disposed of in connection with a reinsurance transaction

•Impairment loss in 2023 in connection with the pending disposition of MetLife Malaysia

•Gains in 2022 on sales of real estate investments

•Lower gains on foreign currency transactions

Partially offset by:

•Lower losses on sales of fixed maturity securities in 2023

•Mark-to-market gains on equity securities in 2023

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Net Derivative Gains (Losses)(2)- Favorable change of $111 million ($88 million, net of income tax)(3):

•Long-term interest rates increased less significantly in 2023 versus 2022 - favorable impact to the estimated fair value of receive-fixed interest rate swaps

Partially offset by:

•Key equity indexes increased in 2023 versus decreased in 2022 - unfavorable impact to equity options and TRRs

•The U.S. dollar weakened against major currencies in 2023 compared to strengthened in 2022 - unfavorable impact to the estimated fair value of receive-U.S. dollar foreign currency swaps

Market Risk Benefit Remeasurement (Gains) Losses(4) - Unfavorable change of $2.7 billion ($2.1 billion, net of income tax):

•Long-term interest rates increased less significantly in 2023 versus 2022

•Updates resulting from the actuarial assumption review, as well as risk margin and other model updates, were unfavorable in 2023 versus largely favorable in 2022

Partially offset by:

•Key equity indexes increased in 2023 versus decreased in 2022

Actuarial Assumption Review- Unfavorable change of $254 million ($197 million, net of income tax):

Year Ended December 31, Variance

(In millions, net of income tax)

Economic assumptions $ (40) $ 12 $ (52)

Biometric assumptions 37 (30) 67

Policyholder behavior assumptions — 290 (290)

Operational assumptions 12 (66) 78

•Total results for 2023 and 2022 include gains of $9 million and $206 million, respectively:

◦Of the $9 million gain, a loss of $4 million was recognized in market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses, a loss of $2 million was recognized in net derivative gains (losses), both of which are discussed above, and a gain of $15 million was recognized in adjusted earnings, which is discussed below

◦Of the $206 million gain, a gain of $261 million was recognized in market risk benefits remeasurement (gains) losses, which is discussed above, and a loss of $55 million was recognized in adjusted earnings, which is discussed below

◦The $197 million decrease was primarily driven by updates made in 2022 to policyholder behavior assumptions in the MetLife Holdings segment related to projected annuitizations for variable annuities, which were recognized in market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses

Adjusted Earnings(5)- Unfavorable change of $268 million. See “— Consolidated Results — Adjusted Earnings.”

Taxes- Unfavorable change in effective tax rate - 26% in 2023 versus 17% in 2022:

•2023 effective tax rate on income before provision for income tax was 26% versus statutory rate of 21%:

•Tax charges from foreign earnings taxed at different statutory rates than the U.S. statutory rate

•Non-taxable investment loss related to the pending disposition of MetLife Malaysia

Partially offset by:

•Low income housing and other tax credits

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•Non-taxable investment income

•Corporate tax deduction for stock compensation

•2022 effective tax rate on income before provision for income tax was 17% versus statutory rate of 21%:

•Low income housing and other tax credits

•Tax benefits from foreign earnings taxed at different rates than the U.S. statutory rate

•IRS audit settlement

•Corporate tax deduction for stock compensation

•Non-taxable investment income

Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2021

Net income (loss) available to MetLife, Inc.’s common shareholders- Decreased $1.6 billion primarily due to the following:

Net Investment Gains (Losses)(1)- Unfavorable change of $2.8 billion ($2.2 billion, net of income tax):

•Losses in 2022 on sales of fixed maturity securities

•Gain in 2021 on the disposition of MetLife P&C

•Lower gains in 2022 on sales of real estate investments

•Mark-to-market losses in 2022 compared to mark-to-market gains in 2021 on equity securities

Partially offset by:

•Losses in 2021 on the sales of certain subsidiaries

•Foreign currency transaction gains in 2022

Net Derivative Gains (Losses)(2)- Favorable change of $1.0 billion ($795 million, net of income tax)(3):

•Key equity indexes decreased in 2022 versus increased in 2021 - favorable impact to equity options and TRRs

•U.S. dollar strengthened less significantly against the Chilean peso in 2022 versus 2021 - favorable impact to the estimated fair value of pay-U.S. dollar foreign currency swaps

Partially offset by:

•Long-term interest rates increased more significantly in 2022 versus 2021 - unfavorable impact to the estimated fair value of receive-fixed interest rate swaps

Market Risk Benefit Remeasurement (Gains) Losses(4) - Favorable change of $2.4 billion ($1.9 billion, net of income tax):

•Long-term interest rates increased more significantly in 2022 versus 2021

•Updates resulting from the actuarial assumption review, as well as risk margin and other model updates, were favorable in 2022 versus unfavorable in 2021

Partially offset by:

• Key equity indexes decreased in 2022 versus increased in 2021

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Actuarial Assumption Review- Favorable change of $701 million ($561 million, net of income tax):

Years Ended December 31, Variance

(In millions, net of income tax)

Economic assumptions $ 12 $ 16 $ (4)

Biometric assumptions (30) 16 (46)

Policyholder behavior assumptions 290 (421) 711

Operational assumptions (66) 34 (100)

•Total results for 2022 and 2021 include gains of $206 million and losses of $355 million, respectively:

◦Of the $206 million gain, a gain of $261 million was recognized in market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses, which is discussed above, and a loss of $55 million was recognized in adjusted earnings, which is discussed below

◦Of the $355 million loss, a loss of $443 million was recognized in market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses, which is discussed above, and a gain of $88 million was recognized in adjusted earnings, which is discussed below

◦The $561 million increase was primarily driven by updates made in both 2022 and 2021 to policyholder behavior assumptions in the MetLife Holdings segment related to projected annuitizations for variable annuities, which were recognized in market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses

Adjusted Earnings(5)- Unfavorable change of $2.1 billion. See “— Consolidated Results — Adjusted Earnings.”

Taxes- Favorable change in effective tax rate - 17% in 2022 versus 19% in 2021

•2022 effective tax rate on income before provision for income tax was 17% versus statutory rate of 21%:

•Low income housing and other tax credits

•Tax benefits from foreign earnings taxed at different rates than the U.S. statutory rate

•IRS audit settlement

•Corporate tax deduction for stock compensation

•Non-taxable investment income

•2021 effective tax rate on income before provision for income tax was 19% versus statutory rate of 21%:

•Low income housing and other tax credits

•Non-taxable investment income

•IRS audit settlement

•Non-cash transfer of assets from a wholly-owned U.K. investment subsidiary to its U.S. parent

•Corporate tax deduction for stock compensation

Partially offset by

•Tax charges from foreign earnings taxed at different rates than the U.S. statutory rate

•Dispositions of MetLife P&C, MetLife Seguros and MetLife Poland and Greece

__________________

(1) See “— Investments — Overview” and “— Investments — Investment Portfolio Results — Net Investment Gains (Losses)” for information regarding management of our investment portfolio.

(2) See “— Derivatives — Net Derivative Gains (Losses)” for information regarding the use of derivatives to hedge market risk.

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(3) Includes amounts relating to investment hedge adjustments, which are also included in adjusted earnings available to common shareholders. See “— Investments — Investment Portfolio Results” for additional information.

(4) See Note 6 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for further information on the Company’s MRBs.

(5) As used in “— Consolidated Results — Adjusted Earnings” and as more fully described in “— Non-GAAP and Other Financial Disclosures,” we refer to adjusted earnings, which does not equate to net income (loss), as determined in accordance with GAAP, to analyze our performance, evaluate segment performance, and allocate resources. We believe that the presentation of adjusted earnings and other financial measures based on adjusted earnings, as we measure it for management purposes, enhances the understanding of our performance by highlighting the results of operations and the underlying profitability drivers of the business. Adjusted earnings and other financial measures based on adjusted earnings allow analysis of our performance relative to our business plan and facilitate comparisons to industry results. Adjusted earnings should not be viewed as a substitute for net income (loss). Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders and adjusted earnings available to common shareholders on a constant currency basis should not be viewed as substitutes for net income (loss) available to MetLife, Inc.’s common shareholders.

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Reconciliation of net income (loss) to adjusted earnings available to common shareholders and premiums, fees and other revenues to adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues

Year Ended December 31, 2023

(In millions)

Add: Preferred stock dividends — — — — — — 198 198

Add: Preferred stock redemption premium — — — — — — — —

Revenues:

Premiums — — — — — — — —

Universal life and investment-type product policy fees — — — — — — — —

Expenses:

Policyholder liability remeasurement (gains) losses — — — — — — — —

Market risk benefit remeasurement (gains) losses — 29 43 — 40 882 — 994

Capitalization of DAC — — — — — — — —

Amortization of DAC and VOBA — — — — — — — —

Amortization of negative VOBA — — — — — — — —

Interest expense on debt — — — — — — — —

Other expenses — — 1 8 (5) — (97) (93)

Goodwill impairment — — — — — — — —

Less: Preferred stock dividends 198 198

Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders $ (958) $ 5,525

Less: adjustments to premiums, fees and other revenues — (75) — — 1 29 40 (5)

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Year Ended December 31, 2022

(In millions)

Add: Preferred stock dividends — — — — — — 185 185

Add: Net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests — — — 7 5 — 6 18

Add: Preferred stock redemption premium — — — — — — — —

Revenues:

Premiums — — — — 41 — — 41

Universal life and investment-type product policy fees — — — — 11 — — 11

Expenses:

Policyholder liability remeasurement (gains) losses — — — — — — — —

Interest credited to policyholder account balances — 31 246 78 1,030 — — 1,385

Capitalization of DAC — — — — 11 — — 11

Amortization of DAC and VOBA — — — — (8) — — (8)

Amortization of negative VOBA — — — — — — — —

Interest expense on debt — — — — — — — —

Goodwill impairment — — — — — — — —

Less: Preferred stock dividends 185 185

Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders $ (800) $ 5,793

Less: adjustments to premiums, fees and other revenues — — — — 60 — 155 215

__________________

(1)Amounts for Group Benefits, RIS, MetLife Holdings and Corporate & Other are shown on a reported basis, as constant currency impact is not significant.

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Year Ended December 31, 2021

(In millions)

Add: Preferred stock dividends — — — — — — 195 195

Add: Preferred stock redemption premium — — — — — — 6 6

Revenues:

Universal life and investment-type product policy fees — — — — 26 — — 26

Expenses:

Policyholder liability remeasurement (gains) losses — — — — (1) — — (1)

Interest credited to policyholder account balances — 6 (211) 175 (695) — — (725)

Capitalization of DAC — — — — 30 — 89 119

Amortization of DAC and VOBA — — — — (28) — (98) (126)

Amortization of negative VOBA — — — — — — — —

Interest expense on debt — — — — — — (1) (1)

Goodwill impairment — — — — — — — —

Less: Preferred stock dividends 195 195

Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders $ (351) $ 7,903

Less: adjustments to premiums, fees and other revenues — — — 1 154 — 1,096 1,251

__________________

(1)Amounts for Group Benefits, RIS, MetLife Holdings and Corporate & Other are shown on a reported basis, as constant currency impact is not significant.

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Consolidated Results — Adjusted Earnings

Business Overview. Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2023 decreased $4.2 billion, or 7%, compared to 2022. Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues, net of foreign currency fluctuations, decreased $4.1 billion, or 7%, compared to 2022, primarily due to lower premiums in our RIS segment, mainly driven by a large pension risk transfer transaction in 2022. This was partially offset by (i) growth in the structured settlement, post-retirement benefit, U.K. longevity reinsurance and institutional income annuities businesses in our RIS segment, (ii) strong sales in Mexico and Chile and solid persistency across the region in our Latin America segment and (iii) growth in both core and voluntary products in our Group Benefits segment.

Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2022 increased $8.4 billion, or 18%, compared to 2021. Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues, net of foreign currency fluctuations, increased $9.8 billion, or 21%, compared to 2021, primarily due to higher premiums in our RIS segment, mainly driven by a large pension risk transfer transaction in 2022.

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions)

Adjusted earnings available to common shareholders $ 5,525 $ 5,793 $ 7,903

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2022

Unless otherwise stated, all amounts discussed below are net of income tax and foreign currency fluctuations. Foreign currency fluctuations can result in significant variances in the financial statement line items.

Adjusted Earnings Available to Common Shareholders - Decreased $268 million on a reported basis, primarily due to the following business drivers:

Market Factors- Decreased adjusted earnings by $490 million:

•Higher average interest crediting rates on investment-type and certain insurance products, primarily in our RIS, Asia and Group Benefits segments

•Variable investment income decreased - lower returns on real estate and private equity funds

Largely offset by:

•Recurring investment income increased - higher yields on fixed income securities and mortgage loans, partially offset by lower derivative income

Volume Growth - Increased adjusted earnings by $322 million:

•Higher average invested assets in most of our businesses

Largely offset by:

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•Increase in interest credited expenses on long duration and certain other insurance products, primarily in our RIS and Latin America segments

Underwriting and Other Insurance Adjustments- Increased adjusted earnings by $301 million:

▪Favorable underwriting - favorable mortality in our Group Benefits segment

Expenses - Decreased adjusted earnings by $150 million:

•Higher direct expenses, including certain employee-related costs, in most of our segments

•Higher corporate-related expenses, primarily in Corporate & Other

Interest Expense on Debt - Decreased adjusted earnings by $85 million:

•Senior note issuances in July 2022, January 2023 and July 2023

•Interest rate increase on surplus notes

Partially offset by:

•Early senior note redemption in February 2023

Notable Items - Actuarial assumption review and other insurance adjustments, as well as litigation reserves and settlements costs - Decreased adjusted earnings by $151 million on a reported basis:

Year Ended December 31, Variance

(In millions, net of income tax)

Group Benefits $ 27 $ — $ 27

Latin America — 1 (1)

MetLife Holdings 2 26 (24)

Corporate & Other (76) — (76)

Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2021

Unless otherwise stated, all amounts discussed below are net of income tax and foreign currency fluctuations. Foreign currency fluctuations can result in significant variances in the financial statement line items.

Adjusted Earnings Available to Common Shareholders - Decreased $2.1 billion on a reported basis due to the following business drivers:

Foreign Currency- Decreased adjusted earnings by $220 million primarily in our Asia segment

Market Factors- Decreased adjusted earnings by $3.0 billion:

•Variable investment income decreased - lower returns on private equity and hedge funds

Underwriting and Other Insurance Adjustments- Increased adjusted earnings by $1.6 billion:

▪Favorable underwriting, primarily driven by an overall decline in COVID-19 related claims in our Group Benefits and Latin America segments

Expenses - Decreased adjusted earnings by $243 million:

•Higher corporate-related expenses, primarily in Corporate & Other

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Notable Items - Actuarial assumption review and other insurance adjustments - Decreased adjusted earnings by $204 million on a reported basis:

Years Ended December 31, Variance

(In millions, net of income tax)

Group Benefits $ — $ — $ —

Latin America 1 6 (5)

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Segment Results and Corporate & Other

Group Benefits

Business Overview. Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2023 increased $663 million, or 3%, compared to 2022, primarily driven by growth in both core and voluntary products.

Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2022 increased $723 million, or 3%, compared to 2021, primarily due to growth from our voluntary products, group disability and dental businesses.

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions)

Provision for income tax expense (benefit) 442 357 126

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2022

Unless otherwise stated, all amounts discussed below are net of income tax.

Adjusted Earnings- Increased $323 million primarily due to the following business drivers:

Market Factors - Decreased adjusted earnings by $18 million:

•Higher average interest crediting rates on certain insurance products and retained asset accounts

•Variable investment income decreased - lower returns on real estate and private equity funds

Substantially offset by:

•Recurring investment income increased - higher yields on fixed income securities and higher derivative income

Volume Growth- Increased adjusted earnings by $71 million:

•Growth in accident & health and legal plans businesses

Underwriting and Other Insurance Adjustments- Increased adjusted earnings by $269 million:

•Favorable mortality in life products - decreases in both incidence and severity of claims, including the impact of lower COVID-19 claims

Partially offset by:

•Unfavorable morbidity - higher dental utilization, as well as higher pet insurance and vision claims, partially offset by favorable results in our disability businesses

•Unfavorable change from refinements to certain insurance and other liabilities in both years

Expenses - Decreased adjusted earnings by $24 million:

•Higher employee-related, technology, and marketing costs exceeded the corresponding increase in adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues

Notable Items- Increased adjusted earnings by $27 million:

•2023 notable item - favorable impact of $27 million - actuarial assumption review

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Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2021

Unless otherwise stated, all amounts discussed below are net of income tax.

Adjusted Earnings- Increased $869 million primarily due to the following business drivers:

Market Factors - Decreased adjusted earnings by $103 million:

•Higher average interest crediting rates on certain insurance products and retained asset accounts

•Variable investment income decreased - lower returns on private equity funds

Volume Growth- Increased adjusted earnings by $89 million:

•Growth in accident & health, group disability and dental businesses

•Positive flows resulted in higher average invested assets

Underwriting and Other Insurance Adjustments - Increased adjusted earnings by $958 million:

•Favorable mortality in life products - decreases in both incidence and severity of claims, largely driven by the impact of lower COVID-19 claims

•Favorable experience - accident & health, vision and dental

•Favorable change from refinements to certain insurance and other liabilities in both years

Partially offset by:

•Unfavorable experience - individual and group disability businesses

Expenses- Decreased adjusted earnings by $75 million:

•Higher direct expenses, including certain employee-related costs, exceeded the corresponding increase in adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues

Retirement & Income Solutions

Business Overview. Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2023 decreased $5.5 billion, or 38%, compared to 2022. This was primarily due to lower premiums driven by a large pension risk transfer transaction in 2022, partially offset by growth in our structured settlement, post-retirement benefit, U.K. longevity reinsurance and institutional income annuities businesses.

Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues for the year ended December 31, 2022 increased $8.7 billion, or 154%, compared to 2021, primarily due to higher premiums driven by a large pension risk transfer transaction in 2022.

Changes in premiums are generally offset by a corresponding change in policyholder benefits.

Years Ended December 31,

(In millions)

Provision for income tax expense (benefit) 450 423 678

Adjusted premiums, fees and other revenues $ 8,832 $ 14,314 $ 5,633

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Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared with the Year Ended December 31, 2022

Unless otherwise stated, all amounts discussed below are net of income tax.

Adjusted Earnings- Increased $73 million primarily due to the following business drivers:

Market Factors - Increased adjusted earnings by $9 million:

•Recurring investment income increased - higher yields on fixed income securities and mortgage loans

Substantially offset by:

•Higher average interest crediting rates on investment-type and certain insurance products

•Variable investment income decreased - lower returns on private equity and real estate funds

Volume Growth- Increased adjusted earnings by $56 million:

•Positive flows from pension risk transfer transactions and funding agreement issuances resulted in higher average invested assets

Largely offset by:

•Increase in interest credited expenses on long duration insurance products

Underwriting and Other Insurance Adjustments- Increased adjusted earnings by $35 million:

•Favorable mortality - structured settlements and pension risk transfer businesses

Expenses - Decreased adjusted earnings by $22 million: