Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.
The following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results could differ materially from such forward-looking statements. Factors that could cause or contribute to those differences include, but are not limited to, those identified below and those discussed in the sections titled “Risk Factors” and “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Additionally, our historical results are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for any period in the future. This Management’s Discussion and Analysis does not discuss 2023 performance or a comparison of 2024 versus 2023 performance for select areas where we have determined the omitted information is not necessary to understand our current period financial condition, changes in our financial condition, or our results. The omitted information may be found in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024 filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, on February 26, 2025.
Overview
Root is a technology insurance company founded on the idea that car insurance rates should be based primarily on driving behaviors, not demographics. We are revolutionizing the archaic car insurance industry by using modern technology, telematics, and data science to offer fair, personalized rates to good drivers.
We believe our competitive advantage is derived from our ability to efficiently and effectively bind auto insurance policies quickly, through direct and partnership channels, aided by segmenting individual risk to price better drivers more fairly. Our customer experience is built for ease of use and a product offering made possible with our full-stack insurance structure. These are all uniquely integrated into a single cloud-based technology platform that captures the entire insurance value chain—from customer acquisition to underwriting to claims administration and ongoing customer engagement. This unified platform enhances pricing accuracy, strengthens operating efficiency, and supports a more seamless customer experience, while creating a defensible, technology- and data-driven advantage that compounds over time.
To scale the business, we aim to drive new customer growth and optimize unit economics via our two distribution channels: direct and partnership. The direct channel efficiently drives volume from high-intent customers by reaching them where they are already shopping for insurance, such as search engines or select marketplaces they actively use. The data science model continuously seeks to optimize bidding strategies that fine tunes our prices to strike a balance between offering a competitive price and achieving target unit economics. The partnership channel provides differentiated access to high intent customers, primarily in the automotive, financial services, and independent agent sectors. We build upon or within the mobile and web customer experiences of distribution partners to reach a captive customer base with an embedded solution, which can even remove the need for the customer to ever visit a Root website to purchase and bind a policy.
We use technology to drive efficiency across the organization within distribution, underwriting, policy administration, and claims. Although we believe we are priced adequately in a majority of the states in which we operate, our technology- and data-driven approach to pricing and underwriting allows for rapid response to macroeconomic trends and competitive dynamics through quick, timely, and appropriate rate actions. We continue to release iterations of our pricing models that incorporate enhanced telematics features, new rating variables, upgraded loss models, and improved risk segmentation. These enhancements strengthen our ability to select risks more precisely and maintain pricing accuracy as conditions evolve.
Claims operations remain a critical driver of our unit economics and long-term competitiveness. We continue to invest in automation, workflow optimization, and advanced analytical tools designed to improve accuracy, speed, and consistency in claims handling. Improvements to the claim process not only supports customer satisfaction but also reinforces the stability of loss ratios and improves long-term cost efficiency by reducing operating expenses.
Through continued investment in and diversification of our distribution channels, leveraging our proprietary technology and data science and focusing on partnerships with automotive, financial services, and independent agents, we believe this will position us for a sustainable, long-term and profitable path for growth.
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As a full-stack insurance company, we currently employ a “capital-efficient” model, which utilizes a variety of reinsurance structures. These include excess of loss and quota share reinsurance. Excess of loss provides us with volatility protection against a portion of large individual losses or an aggregation of losses from catastrophes. Quota share provides, among other advantages, regulatory surplus relief for growing companies. We primarily utilize reinsurance to mitigate impact of large losses or tail events. We continuously evaluate our utilization of third-party reinsurance in order to operate a capital-efficient business model. As our gross loss ratios have stabilized we strategically reduced the utilization of external quota share to balance the cost of reinsurance with capital-efficiency. Over the long-term, we expect to maintain the flexibility to modify our reinsurance program.
Key Factors and Trends Affecting our Operating Performance
Our financial condition and results of operations have been, and will continue to be, affected by a number of factors, including the following:
Our Ability to Manage and Price Risk
We leverage technology to help manage risk. For instance, we leverage machine learning to “clean” behavioral data obtained through a customer’s mobile device, and we use advanced statistical methods to model data into usable behavior scores. We leverage intelligent chat functions and various forms of machine learning and advanced automation to help power our claims function. Technology is a key differentiator in managing risk across our key functions. Our success depends on our ability to adequately and competitively price risk.
Our Ability to Attract New Customers
Our long-term growth will depend, in large part, on our continued ability to attract new customers to our platform. We intend to continue to drive new customer growth by leveraging our differentiated consumer experience, our partnership channel, direct performance marketing driven by dynamic data science models, machine learning loss models and our telematics-based pricing models. Additionally, our proprietary dataset will continue to scale as we grow, enabling us to enhance our predictive models to further improve pricing and attract potential new customers. We will also continue to target attractive potential customer segments through a diverse distribution strategy, which includes direct and partnership channels. Our ability to attract new customers will depend on a number of factors, including the pricing of our products, offerings of our competitors, success of our partnership channel and the effectiveness of our marketing efforts, and our ability to expand into new markets. Our ability to attract and retain customers depends on maintaining and strengthening our brand by providing superior customer experiences and competitive pricing. In particular, we are challenged by traditional insurers who have more diverse product offerings and longer established operating histories. These competitors can mimic certain aspects of our digital platform and offerings, and as they have more types of insurance products, can offer customers the ability to “bundle” multiple coverage types together, which may be attractive to many customers.
Our Ability to Retain Customers
Our ability to derive significant lifetime value from our customer relationships depends, in part, on our ability to retain our customers over time. Strong retention allows us to build a recurring revenue base, generating additional premiums term over term without material incremental marketing and underwriting costs. As we broadly retain customers and our book of business evolves to be more weighted towards renewals versus new business, as is the case with our mature competitors, we will benefit from the inherently lower loss ratios that characterize renewed premiums. Our ability to retain customers will depend on a number of factors, including our customers’ satisfaction with our products, offerings of our competitors and pricing of products.
Our Ability to be Licensed in All States in the United States
Our long-term growth opportunity will benefit from our ability to provide insurance across more states in the United States. Today, we are currently licensed in 50 states and the District of Columbia and operate in 36 of those states. Our state expansion has unlocked a large total addressable market for sustained growth, made our direct targeted marketing more efficient and created an opportunity to build a national brand, supporting our marketing holistically.
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Our Ability to Expand Premiums Through Cross-Selling and Fee Income Per Policy
We are in the early stages of cross-selling non-auto products across our customer base. Cross-sales of renters policies will allow us to generate additional premiums without material incremental marketing spend, and ultimately higher revenue per customer. We have also observed that bundling products with auto insurance improves retention as the relationship with our customer expands. Our success in expanding revenues through cross-sales and greater fee income per policy depends on our marketing efforts with new products, continuous state expansion of these offerings and the pricing of our bundled products and continuing to refine the fee schedules in our policyholder contracts to be more consistent with industry norms. The success of our renters insurance offering is also subject to our ability to develop underwriting capabilities to adequately price renters risk.
Recent Developments Affecting Comparability
General Macroeconomic Factors
Changing global economic conditions has resulted in inflationary pressures, supply chain disruptions, changes in interest rates and changes in equity markets. In addition, economic uncertainty has developed as a result of changes in tariff policy, including the imposition of new, increased or retaliatory tariffs. There remains uncertainty around the future of inflation, including as a result of evolving tariffs and trade policy; elevated levels of inflation for an extended period could cause claims and claim expenses to increase, impact the performance of our investment portfolio, increase nonpayment cancellations or have other adverse effects, including variability in the competitive environment. We have also seen an increase in vehicle repair and medical costs, which are affected by inflation. These cost increases have resulted in greater claims severity. Additionally, we continue to file in multiple states to establish rates that more closely follow the evolving loss cost trends. Fluctuations in interest rates could impact our cost of capital and may limit our ability to raise additional capital.
Comprehensive Reinsurance
We have significantly reduced the utilization of reinsurance through a strategic reduction of external quota share. The changes to the reinsurance program aim to deliver improved economics. Our diversified approach to reinsurance allows us to optimize capital requirements while remaining flexible in response to changes in market conditions or changes specific to our own business. We may choose to amend, commute, and/or non-renew certain third-party reinsurance arrangements in the future, which may result in us retaining more or less of our business. To the extent we retain a larger share of our book of business, our capital requirements may increase.
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Key Performance Indicators
We regularly review a number of metrics, including the following key performance indicators, to evaluate our business, measure our performance, identify trends in our business, prepare financial projections and make strategic decisions. In addition to our financial results prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States, or GAAP, we believe these non-GAAP and operational measures are useful in evaluating our performance. See the section titled “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” for additional information regarding our use of direct contribution and adjusted EBITDA and their reconciliations to the most directly comparable GAAP measures.
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions, except premiums per policy)
Gross LAE ratio 7.1 % 8.6 % 9.6 %
Gross accident period loss ratio 59.3 % 58.2 % 64.1 %
Policies in Force
We define policies in force as the number of current and active auto insurance policyholders underwritten by us as of the period end date. We view policies in force as an important metric to assess our financial performance because policy growth and retention drives our revenue growth, expands brand awareness, deepens our market penetration, and generates additional data to continue to improve the functioning of our platform.
Premiums per Policy
We define premiums per policy as the ratio of gross premiums written on auto insurance policies in force at the end of the period divided by policies in force. We view premiums per policy as an important metric since the higher the premiums per policy the greater the amount of earned premium we expect from each policy.
Premiums in Force
We define premiums in force as premiums per policy multiplied by policies in force multiplied by two. We view premiums in force as an estimate of annualized run rate of gross premiums written as of a given period. Since our auto policies are six-month policies, we multiply this figure by two in order to determine an annualized amount of premiums in force. We view this as an important metric because it is an indicator of the size of our portfolio of policies as well as an indicator of expected earned premium over the coming 12 months. Premiums in force is not a forecast of future revenue nor is it a reliable indicator of revenue expected to be earned in any given period. We
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believe that our calculation of premiums in force is useful to investors and analysts because it captures the impact of fluctuations in customers and premiums per policy at the end of each reported period, without adjusting for known or projected policy updates, cancellations and non-renewals.
Gross Premiums Written
We define gross premiums written, as the total amount of gross premium on policies that were bound during the period less the prorated impact of policy cancellations. Gross premiums written includes direct premiums and assumed premiums. We view gross premiums written as an important metric because it is the metric that most closely correlates with changes in gross premiums earned. We use gross premiums written, which excludes the impact of premiums ceded to reinsurers, to manage our business because we believe that it reflects the business volume and direct economic benefit generated by our customer acquisition activities, which along with our underlying underwriting and claims operations (gross loss ratio and gross loss adjustment expense, or LAE), are the key drivers of our future profit opportunities. Additionally, premiums ceded to reinsurers can change significantly based on the type and mix of reinsurance structures we use, and, as such, we have the optionality to fully retain the premiums from customers acquired in the future.
Gross Premiums Earned
We define gross premiums earned as the amount of gross premium that was earned during the period. Premiums are earned over the period in which insurance protection is provided, which is typically six months. Gross premiums earned includes direct premiums and assumed premiums. We view gross premiums earned as an important metric as it allows us to evaluate our premium levels prior to the impacts of reinsurance. It is the primary driver of our consolidated GAAP revenues. As with gross premiums written, we use gross premiums earned, which excludes the impact of premiums ceded to reinsurers to manage our business, because we believe that it reflects the business volume and direct economic benefit generated by our customer acquisition activities, which along with our underlying underwriting and claims operations (gross loss ratio and gross LAE), are the key drivers of our future profit opportunities.
Gross Profit
We define gross profit as total revenue minus net loss and LAE and other insurance expense. We view gross profit as an important metric because we believe it is informative of the financial performance of our core insurance business.
Direct Contribution
We define direct contribution, a non-GAAP financial measure, as gross profit excluding net investment income, net realized gains on investments, acquisition expenses which include report costs and refunds related to these expenses and commission expenses related to our partnership channel, and fixed expenses, which include certain warrant compensation expense related to policies originating through the integrated automobile insurance solution for Carvana’s online buying platform, or Integrated Platform, overhead allocated based on headcount, or Overhead, and salaries, health benefits, bonuses, employee retirement plan-related expenses and employee share-based compensation expense, or Personnel Costs, licenses, professional fees and other expenses. Further impacts related to reinsurance are excluded, and these consist of ceded premiums earned, ceded loss and LAE, and net ceding commission and other. Net ceding commission and other is comprised of ceding commission received in connection with reinsurance ceded, partially offset by amortization of excess ceding commission, and other impacts of reinsurance ceded which are included in other insurance expense. After these adjustments, the resulting calculation is inclusive of only those gross variable costs of revenue incurred on the successful acquisition of business. We view direct contribution as an important metric because we believe it measures profitability of our total policy portfolio prior to the impact of reinsurance.
See the section titled “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” for a reconciliation of total revenue to direct contribution.
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Adjusted EBITDA
We define adjusted EBITDA, a non-GAAP financial measure, as net income (loss) excluding interest expense, income tax expense, depreciation and amortization, share-based compensation, loss on extinguishment of debt, warrant compensation expense, restructuring charges, legal fees and other items that do not reflect our ongoing operating performance. After these adjustments, the resulting calculation represents expenses directly attributable to our operating performance. We use adjusted EBITDA as an internal performance measure in the management of our operations because we believe it provides management and other users of our financial information useful insight into our results of operations and underlying business performance. Adjusted EBITDA should not be viewed as a substitute for net income (loss) calculated in accordance with GAAP, and other companies may define adjusted EBITDA differently.
See the section titled “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” for a reconciliation of net income (loss) to adjusted EBITDA.
Net Loss and LAE Ratio
We define net loss and LAE ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the ratio of net loss and LAE to net premiums earned. We view net loss and LAE ratio as an important metric because it allows us to evaluate loss trends as a percentage of net premiums, and we believe it is useful for investors to evaluate those separately from other operating expenses.
Net Expense Ratio
We define net expense ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the ratio of all operating expenses less loss and LAE and less fee income to net premiums earned. We view net expense ratio as important because it allows us to analyze our expense and acquisition trends, net of fee income, and allows investors to evaluate these expenses exclusive of our loss and LAE.
Net Combined Ratio
We define net combined ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the sum of net loss and LAE ratio and net expense ratio. We view net combined ratio as important because it allows us to analyze our underwriting result trends and is a key indicator of overall profitability and health of the overall business. We believe it is useful to investors to evaluate these components separately and in the aggregate when reviewing our underwriting performance. A net combined ratio under 100% indicates an underwriting profit, while a net combined ratio greater than 100% indicates an underwriting loss.
Gross Loss Ratio
We define gross loss ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the ratio of gross losses to gross premiums earned. Gross loss ratio excludes LAE. We view gross loss ratio as an important metric because it allows us to evaluate incurred losses and LAE separately prior to the impact of reinsurance.
Gross LAE Ratio
We define gross LAE ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the ratio of gross LAE to gross premiums earned. We view gross LAE ratio as an important metric because it allows us to evaluate incurred losses and LAE separately prior to the impact of reinsurance.
Gross Expense Ratio
We define gross expense ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the ratio of gross operating expenses less loss and LAE and less fee income to gross premiums earned. We view gross expense ratio as important because it allows us to analyze the underlying expense base of the business and establish expense targets, prior to the impact of reinsurance. We believe gross expense ratio is useful for investors to further evaluate business health and performance, prior to the impact of reinsurance.
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Gross Combined Ratio
We define gross combined ratio, expressed as a percentage, as the sum of the gross loss ratio, gross LAE ratio and gross expense ratio. We view gross combined ratio as important because it allows us to evaluate financial performance and establish targets that we believe more closely reflect the underlying performance and profitability of the business prior to reinsurance. Further, we believe it is useful for investors to evaluate these components separately and in the aggregate when reviewing our gross underwriting performance. A gross combined ratio under 100% indicates an underwriting profit while a gross combined ratio greater than 100% indicates an underwriting loss, prior to the impact of reinsurance.
Gross Accident Period Loss Ratio
Gross accident period loss ratio, expressed as a percentage, represents all losses and claims expected to arise from insured events that occurred during the applicable period regardless of when they are reported and finally settled divided by gross premiums earned for the same period. The gross accident period loss ratio is remeasured each reporting period to reflect updated estimates of ultimate losses as they develop. Changes to our loss reserves are the primary driver of differences between our gross accident period loss ratio and gross loss ratio. We believe that gross accident period loss ratio is useful in evaluating expected losses prior to the impact of reinsurance.
Components of Our Results of Operations
Revenue
We generate revenue from net premiums earned, net investment income, fee income and other income.
Net Premiums Earned
Premiums written are deferred and earned pro rata over the policy period. Net premiums earned represents the earned portion of our gross premiums written, less the earned portion that is ceded to third-party reinsurers under our reinsurance agreements.
Net Investment Income
Net investment income represents interest earned from our cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents, fixed maturities, and short-term investments less investment expenses. Investment expenses include costs associated with the management of our investment portfolio, including Personnel Costs. Net investment income also includes impairments related to low income housing tax credits investments in limited liability entities to offset certain state premium taxes. These tax credits are recognized when utilized. Net investment income is directly correlated with the overall size of our cash and investment portfolio, market level of interest rates and changes in the fair value of our private equity investments. Net investment income will vary with the size and composition of our investment portfolio, market returns and the investment strategy.
Fee Income
Fee income consists primarily of the flat fee we charge for installment payments which relates to the additional administrative costs associated with processing more frequent billings. These fees are recognized in the period in which we process the installment. We also charge policy fees, which are typically nonrefundable fees that are intended to reimburse a portion of the costs incurred to underwrite the policy. These fees are recognized ratably over the policy coverage period. Fee income also includes late payment fees that are collected from our policyholders. These fees are recognized in the period in which we process the late payment.
Other Income
Other income is primarily comprised of revenue earned from distributing website and mobile application policy inquiry leads in geographies where we do not have a presence, recognized when we generate the lead.
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Operating Expenses
Our operating expenses consist of loss and LAE, sales and marketing, other insurance expense, technology and development, and general and administrative expenses.
Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses
Loss and LAE include the costs incurred for claims, payments made and estimated future payments to be made to or on behalf of our policyholders, including expenses needed to adjust or settle claims, net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. Loss and LAE include an amount determined using adjuster determined case-base estimates for reported claims and actuarial determined unpaid claim estimates using past experience and historical emergence patterns for unreported losses and LAE. These reserves are a liability established to cover the estimated ultimate cost to settle insured losses. The unpaid loss estimates consider loss trends, mix of business, and other risk factors impacting claims settlement. The method used to estimate unpaid LAE liability is based on claims transaction data, including the relative cost of adjusting and settling a range of claim types from express material damage claims to more complex injury cases.
Loss and LAE are net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. We enter into reinsurance contracts to limit our exposure to potential losses as well as to provide additional capacity to write more business. These expenses are a function of the size and term of the insurance policies we write and the loss experience associated with the underlying risks. This includes an allowance for credit losses based on the probability of default and expected loss given default of a reinsurer. Loss and LAE may be paid out over a period of years.
Various other expenses incurred during claims processing are considered LAE. These amounts include Personnel Costs for claims-related employees, vendor expenses, software expense, internally developed software amortization, and Overhead.
Sales and Marketing
Sales and marketing includes both acquisition and fixed expenses. We view direct performance marketing, experimental marketing, channel media, advertising and referral fees as acquisition expenses. We view sponsorship, Personnel Costs and Overhead related to our brand strategy, creative and business development activities, and certain data science activities as fixed expenses. Sales and marketing are expensed as incurred.
We plan to continue investing in and diversifying our marketing channels to attract and acquire new customers, increase our brand awareness, and expand our product offerings within certain markets. We expect that our sales and marketing will vary based upon the competitive environment and other investments in acquisition. Over the long-term we expect it will decrease as a percentage of revenue as the proportion of renewals to our total business increases.
Other Insurance Expense
Other insurance expense includes expenses primarily related to insurance and underwriting operations of the business and is comprised of acquisition, variable and fixed expenses. We view report costs and refunds related to these expenses and commission expenses related to our partnership channel as acquisition costs. We view premium taxes, credit card and policy processing expenses and premium write-offs as variable expenses. We view insurance license expenses, certain warrant compensation expense related to policies originating through the integrated automobile insurance solution for Carvana’s online buying platform, low income housing tax credits which offset certain state premium taxes, Personnel Costs and Overhead related to actuarial and certain data science activities as fixed expenses.
We amortize a portion of our deferred policy acquisition costs including certain commissions related to our partnership channel, premium taxes, and report costs related to the successful acquisition of a policy. Tax credits are recognized when utilized. Other insurance expense is expensed as incurred, except for costs related to deferred policy acquisition costs that are capitalized and subsequently amortized over the same period in which the related premiums are earned. Warrant compensation expense is recognized on a pro-rata basis considering progress toward
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achieving milestones for policies originated through the Integrated Platform as defined under the Carvana commercial agreement.
These expenses are recognized net of ceding commissions earned from our quota share reinsurance agreements. The ceding commission provides for reimbursement of both direct and other periodic acquisition costs, including certain underwriting and marketing costs, and is presented as a reduction of other insurance expense.
Technology and Development
Technology and development are fixed expenses that consist of software development costs related to our mobile app and homegrown information technology systems; third-party services related to infrastructure support; Personnel Costs and Overhead for engineering, product, technology, and certain data science activities; and amortization of internally developed software. Technology and development is expensed as incurred, except for development and testing costs related to internally developed software that are capitalized and subsequently amortized over the expected useful life. Over time, we expect technology and development to decrease as a percentage of revenue.
General and Administrative
General and administrative are fixed expenses that primarily relate to external professional service expenses; Personnel Costs and Overhead for corporate functions; and depreciation expense for computers, furniture and other fixed assets; and restructuring costs which include employee costs, real estate exit costs and other costs. General and administrative expenses are expensed as incurred. We expect general and administrative expenses to decrease as a percentage of total revenue over time.
Non-Operating Expenses
Our non-operating expenses consist of interest expense, loss on extinguishment of debt, and income tax expense.
Interest Expense
Interest expense is not an operating expense; therefore, we include these expenses below operating expenses. Interest expense primarily relates to interest incurred on our long-term debt, certain fees that are expensed as incurred and amortization of discount and debt issuance costs.
Loss on Extinguishment of Debt
Loss on extinguishment of debt is not an operating expense; therefore, we include these expenses below operating expenses. Loss on extinguishment of debt primarily relates to the difference between the reacquisition price of the debt and the net carrying amount of the extinguished debt. Upon extinguishment of debt, the remaining unamortized discount and debt issuance costs are recognized as expense.
Income Tax Expense
Income tax expense consists primarily of state income taxes in the United States. We have recorded United States federal and state net deferred tax assets for which we provide a full valuation allowance, which includes net operating loss carryforwards and tax credits.
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Results of Operations
Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2025 and 2024
The following table presents our results of operations for the periods indicated:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Revenue:
Operating expenses:
Loss on extinguishment of debt — 5.4 (5.4) (100.0) %
Other comprehensive income:
Changes in net unrealized gains on investments 6.2 0.2 6.0 3000.0 %
Revenue
Net Premiums Earned
Net premiums earned increased due to an increase in policies in force as a result of continued growth in our partnership channel and reduced cessions of premiums earned to reinsurers between periods, partially offset by a decrease in premiums per policy resulting from a shift in customer and state mix.
During the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024, we ceded approximately 4.4% and 13.0% of our gross premiums earned, respectively. The change in cessions between periods was primarily driven by a strategic reduction of quota share reinsurance.
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The following table presents gross premiums written, ceded premiums written, net premiums written, gross premiums earned, ceded premiums earned and net premiums earned for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Gross premiums written increased due to growth in new writings as a result of continued growth in our partnership channel. The increase in gross premiums earned was primarily due to greater policies in force compared to 2024.
Fee Income
Fee income increased primarily due to greater policies in force, resulting in an increase of $5.9 million in policy fees and $4.2 million in installment fees.
Operating Expenses
Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses
Loss and LAE increased due to additional losses incurred on increased gross premiums earned volume and reduced cessions of losses to reinsurers driven by a strategic reduction of quota share reinsurance. This volume-driven increase was partially offset by a reduction of loss and LAE reserves on prior periods due to lower-than-expected reported activity.
Gross accident period loss ratios increased to 59.3% for the year ended December 31, 2025, from 58.2% for 2024. The change in the ratios was driven by geographic and channel mix shift and higher loss costs as a result of increased severity per claim due to higher vehicle repair and medical costs. This was partially offset by rate actions, favorable weather-related losses, and business tenure mix. We observed a mid-single-digit increase in estimated ultimate severity per claim and a low-single-digit decrease in estimated ultimate claim frequency for the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to 2024 across our bodily injury, collision, and property damage coverages.
Sales and Marketing
Sales and marketing increased primarily due to a $26.9 million increase in direct performance marketing spend, reflective of our investments to drive accretive growth and deeper market penetration in the states in which we operate. We also saw a $9.5 million increase in experimental marketing spend as part of our efforts to diversify our distribution channels. While acquisition expenses increased due to heightened competition in the marketing environment, we remained disciplined in our deployment of direct marketing spend, operating within our estimated return targets.
Other Insurance Expense
Other insurance expense increased primarily due to a $35.1 million increase in our acquisition expenses driven by greater commissions paid related to the continued growth in our partnership channel, including amortization of
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deferred policy acquisition costs. In addition, acquisition expenses increased due to a $10.9 million sales tax refund that decreased acquisition expenses in the prior year. Acquisition expenses also increased due to a $4.0 million increase in report costs as a result of growth in new writings. We also saw a $19.1 million decrease in net ceding commission contra-expense as a result of a decline in ceded premiums written, largely attributable to a strategic reduction of quota share reinsurance. Fixed expenses increased primarily due to a $15.3 million increase in Carvana warrant expense, including a cumulative expense catch-up, related to our outstanding warrant structure with Carvana. Variable expenses increased primarily due to a $6.6 million increase in premium taxes, as a result of growth of our earned premium and policies in force.
General and Administrative
General and administrative increased due to a $18.6 million increase in Personnel Costs mainly driven by share-based compensation expenses relating to our equity incentive plan.
Non-Operating Expenses
Interest Expense
Interest expense decreased primarily due to a $19.5 million decrease in debt interest expense as a result of reduced principal and a more favorable interest rate in connection with the Amended Term Loan. In addition, interest expense benefited from $4.6 million lower debt discount amortization as a result of changes in our debt structure following the amendment.
Loss on Extinguishment of Debt
Loss on extinguishment of debt was due to unamortized discount and debt issuance costs being expensed as a result of extinguishing the prior term loan in 2024.
Other Comprehensive Income
Changes in Net Unrealized Gains on Investments
Changes in net unrealized gains on investments increased primarily due to declining market interest rates during the year, which resulted in higher fair values for fixed maturity securities, particularly those with longer durations, as well as the replacement of lower yielding securities with higher coupon investments.
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Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2024 and 2023
The following table presents our results of operations for the periods indicated:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Revenue:
Operating expenses:
Loss on extinguishment of debt 5.4 — 5.4 100.0 %
Income tax expense — — — — %
Other comprehensive income:
Changes in net unrealized gains on investments 0.2 3.3 (3.1) (93.9) %
The December 31, 2024 and 2023 results of operations discussion can be found in the section titled “Results of Operations” Part II, Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024.
Non-GAAP Financial Measures
The non-GAAP financial measures below have not been calculated in accordance with GAAP and should be considered in addition to results prepared in accordance with GAAP and should not be considered as a substitute for, or superior to, GAAP results. In addition, direct contribution and adjusted EBITDA should not be construed as indicators of our operating performance, liquidity or cash flows generated by operating, investing and financing activities, as there may be significant factors or trends that they fail to address. We caution investors that non-GAAP financial information, by its nature, departs from traditional accounting conventions. Therefore, its use can make it difficult to compare our current results with our results from other reporting periods and with the results of other companies.
Our management uses these non-GAAP financial measures, in conjunction with GAAP financial measures, as an integral part of managing our business and to, among other things: (1) monitor and evaluate the performance of our business operations and financial performance; (2) facilitate internal comparisons of the historical operating performance of our business operations; (3) facilitate external comparisons of the results of our overall business to the historical operating performance of other companies that may have different capital structures and debt levels; (4) review and assess the operating performance of our management team, including when determining incentive
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compensation; (5) analyze and evaluate financial and strategic planning decisions regarding future operating investments; and (6) plan for and prepare future annual operating budgets and determine appropriate levels of operating investments.
Direct Contribution
For the definition of direct contribution and why management believes this measure provides useful information to investors, see “—Key Performance Indicators.”
The following table provides a reconciliation of total revenue to direct contribution for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Adjustments from other insurance expense(1) 135.8 66.5 76.3
Ceded loss and loss adjustment expenses (30.5) (97.7) (144.5)
Net ceding commission and other(2) (16.6) (36.1) (62.9)
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(1) Adjustments from other insurance expense consists of acquisition expenses, including report costs and refunds related to these expenses and commission expenses related to our partnership channel of $101.8 million, $49.7 million and $50.8 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. Adjustments from other insurance expense also consists of fixed expenses, including warrant compensation expense related to policies originating through the Integrated Platform, Personnel Costs, Overhead, licenses, professional fees and other of $34.0 million, $16.8 million and $25.5 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively.
(2) Net ceding commission and other is comprised of ceding commissions received in connection with reinsurance ceded, partially offset by amortization of excess ceding commission and other impacts of reinsurance ceded.
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Adjusted EBITDA
For the definition of adjusted EBITDA and why management believes this measure provides useful information to investors, see “—Key Performance Indicators.”
The following table provides a reconciliation of net income (loss) to adjusted EBITDA for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Adjustments:
Income tax expense 0.5 — —
Loss on extinguishment of debt — 5.4 —
Warrant compensation expense 19.2 3.8 17.4
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(1) Restructuring costs consist of employee costs, real estate exit costs, and other. This includes zero, zero and $0.4 million of share-based compensation for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. This also includes $0.1 million, $0.4 million and $0.4 million of depreciation and amortization for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. For further information on restructuring costs, see Note 10, “Restructuring Costs,” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.
(2) Other primarily reflects legal costs and other items that do not reflect our ongoing operating performance. Legal and other fees net of recoveries related to the 2022 misappropriation of funds by a former senior marketing employee of $(0.2) million, $(1.1) million and $3.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively.
Liquidity and Capital Resources
General
Since inception, we have financed operations primarily through sales of insurance policies and the net proceeds we have received from our issuance of stock and debt. Cash generated from operations is highly dependent on being able to efficiently acquire and maintain customers while pricing our insurance products appropriately. We also receive cash dividends from our insurance subsidiaries, whose ability to declare and issue dividends is subject to regulatory restrictions and approval. We are continuously evaluating alternatives for efficiently funding our ongoing operations and reducing our cost of capital. We expect, from time to time, to engage in a variety of financing transactions for such purposes, including the issuance of stock and debt.
Certain events may impact our liquidity, such as the economic instability resulting in inflationary pressures, supply chain disruptions, changes in interest rates, new or increased tariffs, changes in equity markets and our utilization of reinsurance. There remains uncertainty around the future of inflation; elevated levels of inflation for an extended period could cause claims and claim expenses to increase, impact the performance of our investment portfolio or have other adverse effects. Conditions in the capital and credit markets, including instability and uncertainty, as well as broader economic factors such as changes in tariff policy, including the imposition of new, increased or retaliatory tariffs, can also influence the returns, liquidity, valuation, and types of our investments. Additionally, fluctuations in interest rates could impact our cost of capital and may limit our ability to raise additional capital. We utilize reinsurance arrangements to mitigate the impact of large losses or catastrophic events.
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Over time, our strategy continues to evolve and we may choose to amend, commute, and/or non-renew certain third-party reinsurance agreements, which may result in us retaining more or less of our business in the future. To the extent we retain a larger share of our book of business, our capital requirements may increase.
Regulatory Considerations
We are organized as a holding company, but our primary operations are conducted by three of our wholly-owned insurance subsidiaries, Root Insurance Company and Root Property & Casualty Insurance Company, both Ohio-domiciled insurance companies, and Root Florida Insurance Company, a Florida-domiciled insurance company. The payment of dividends by our insurance subsidiaries is subject to restrictions set forth in the insurance laws and regulations of the State of Ohio and the State of Florida. Our domestic insurance subsidiaries are not permitted to pay any dividends without approval of the applicable superintendent, commissioner and/or director. During the year ended December 31, 2025, the Ohio Department of Insurance approved Root Insurance Company to distribute four extraordinary dividends. As a result, over the period, $45.0 million was distributed to Caret Holdings, Inc., its parent company, net of capital contributions made by Caret Holdings, Inc. to our regulated insurance entities.
If our insurance subsidiaries’ business grows, the amount of capital we are required to maintain to satisfy our risk-based capital requirements may increase significantly. To comply with these regulations, we may be required to maintain capital in the insurance subsidiaries that we would otherwise invest in our growth and operations. As of December 31, 2025, our insurance subsidiaries maintained a risk-based capital level that is in excess of an amount that would require any corrective actions on our part.
Our wholly-owned, Cayman Islands-based reinsurance subsidiary, Root Reinsurance Company, Ltd., or Root Re, maintains a Class B(iii) insurer license under Cayman Islands Monetary Authority, or CIMA. At December 31, 2025, Root Re was subject to compliance with certain capital levels and a net premiums earned to capital ratio up to 15:1, which we maintained as of December 31, 2025. The capital ratio can fluctuate at Root Re’s election, subject to regulatory approval. Root Re’s primary sources of funds are assumed insurance premiums and net investment income. These funds are primarily used to pay claims and operating expenses and to purchase investments. Root Re must notify CIMA before it can pay any dividend to the holding company. During the year ended December 31, 2025, Root Re paid dividends of $60.0 million to Caret Holdings, Inc.
Financing Arrangements
In October 2024, we entered into the Amended Term Loan with the principal amount due and payable upon maturity on October 29, 2030. Interest is payable quarterly and determined on a floating interest rate calculated on the Secured Overnight Financing Rate with a 1.0% floor, plus an applicable margin ranging from 5.25% to 6.00%, based upon the debt-to-capital ratio payable quarterly.
Liquidity
As of December 31, 2025, we had $669.3 million in cash and cash equivalents, of which $312.1 million was held outside of regulated insurance entities. We also had $387.0 million in marketable securities.
Our cash and cash equivalents primarily consist of bank deposits and money market funds. Our marketable securities primarily consist of United States Treasury and agency securities, municipal securities, corporate debt securities, and asset-backed securities.
We believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents, marketable securities and cash flow from operations will be sufficient to support short-term working capital and capital expenditure requirements for at least the next 12 months and for the foreseeable future thereafter. This belief is based on management’s current assumptions and is subject to changes in market or regulatory conditions affecting the insurance industry, and other general economic, financial, competitive and other factors that are beyond our control.
Our long-term capital requirements depend on many factors, including our insurance premium growth rate, rate adequacy, level of marketing spend, renewal activity, the timing and the amount of cash received from customers,
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the performance of our products, including the success of our partnership channel, loss cost trends, the timing and extent of spending to support development efforts, the introduction of new and enhanced products, the continuing market adoption of offerings on our platform, operating costs, and the ongoing uncertainty in global markets.
Tax withholding obligations arise upon vesting of shares of service-based restricted stock units, or RSUs, performance-based restricted stock units, and market-based restricted stock units, and these obligations must be satisfied at the time they arise through cash payments remitted to the relevant tax authorities. To the extent we satisfy our tax withholding obligations with respect to these equity compensation awards by withholding shares and remitting cash to the relevant tax authorities, the amount of cash payments due for taxes upon the vesting of such equity compensation awards is dependent on the price of our Class A common stock on the applicable vesting dates and could be substantial. Accordingly, increases in the price of our Class A common stock could increase the amount of cash required to satisfy these tax withholding obligations, which could have a negative impact on our liquidity and ability to use funds for operational purposes.
Our debt covenants require cash and cash equivalents held in entities other than our insurance subsidiaries to be at least $50.0 million.
Through prudent deployment of capital we believe we have sufficient resources, and access to additional debt and equity capital, to adequately meet our obligations as they come due.
Cash Flows
The following table summarizes our cash flow data for the periods presented:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Net cash provided by (used in) operating activities $ 206.5 $ 195.7 $ (33.6)
Net cash used in investing activities (91.7) (154.4) (45.7)
Net cash used in financing activities (25.2) (120.7) (4.1)
Comparison of Years Ended December 31, 2025 and 2024
Net cash provided by operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2025 was $206.5 million compared to $195.7 million of net cash provided by operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase in cash provided by operating activities was due to a strategic reduction of quota share reinsurance and timing of reinsurance and premium receipts. This was partially offset by a change in loss and LAE reserves and premiums not yet earned due to greater growth in policies in force in the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to 2025.
Net cash used in investing activities for the year ended December 31, 2025 was $91.7 million, compared to $154.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. The decrease in cash used in investing activities was primarily due to lower purchases of investments and higher proceeds from maturities, calls and pay downs of investments for the year ended December 31, 2025 compared to 2024.
Net cash used in financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2025 was $25.2 million, compared to $120.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. The decrease in cash used in financing activities was primarily a result of extinguishing the prior term loan and entering into the Amended Term Loan in 2024, which was partially offset by higher tax withholding obligations arising from the vesting of shares of RSUs and market-based RSUs during the year ended December 31, 2025.
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Comparison of Years Ended December 31, 2024 and 2023
The December 31, 2024 and 2023 net cash discussion can be found in the section titled “Liquidity and Capital Resources” in Part II, Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024.
Material Cash Requirements from Contractual and Other Obligations
As of December 31, 2025, our material cash requirements from known contractual and other obligations consisted of purchase commitments, as discussed in Note 13, “Commitments and Contingencies,” operating leases, as discussed in Note 8, “Leases,” and an Amended Term Loan, as discussed in Note 7, “Long-Term Debt,” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements. We believe we have sufficient resources, and access to additional debt and equity capital, to adequately meet our obligations as they come due.
Critical Accounting Estimates
Our financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of the consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires our management to make a number of estimates and assumptions relating to the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the period. We evaluate our significant estimates on an ongoing basis, including, but not limited to, estimates related to reserves for loss and LAE, valuation allowance on our deferred tax assets, and the amount of reinsurance recoverable and receivable from reinsurance contracts. We base our estimates on historical experience and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results could differ from those estimates.
We believe that the accounting estimates described below involve a significant degree of judgment and complexity. Accordingly, we believe these are the most critical to aid in fully understanding and evaluating our consolidated financial condition and results of operations. For further information, see Note 2, “Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies,” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.
Loss and LAE Reserves
The evaluation and estimation of ultimate losses and LAE requires considerable judgment in understanding how claims mature, how claims differ between lines of business, and how changes in the business impact claims settlement over time. Loss reserves represent a liability estimate at a given point in time based on many input variables including historical and statistical information, inflation, contract interpretation, weather catastrophe impacts, regulatory environment, and economic conditions. While we consider many inputs into the loss reserve valuation process, as well as several actuarial methodologies, there is no single method for determining the exact ultimate claims liability. In many cases, we use multiple estimation methods based on the particular facts and circumstances of the claims and liabilities being evaluated, resulting in a range of reasonable estimates for reserves for losses and LAE. We do not discount reserves.
Our actuarial reserving team performs monthly reviews of the claims experience and loss emergence to support our estimation of ultimate losses and LAE. A few considerations and assumptions in estimating ultimate claim liabilities includes relative case reserve adequacy over time, claims cycle time, claims settlement practices, exposure growth, actuarial projections, current economic conditions, driving patterns observed from telematics, weather catastrophes, and claim litigation. Our loss reserves can be grouped by claim type, where amounts related to material damage of vehicles and property tend to settle within six to 12 months, while claims that involve injuries or personal liability have a much longer time period between the occurrence of a loss and the settlement of the claim. In general, the longer the time span between the incidence of a loss and the settlement of the claim, the more the ultimate settlement amount can vary.
Because actual experience can differ from key assumptions used in establishing reserves, there is potential for significant variation in the development of loss reserves. There is considerable uncertainty associated with the
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actuarial estimates, and therefore the actual losses and LAE paid in the future may differ materially from the reserves we have recorded. Our loss estimates are continually reviewed by management and adjusted as necessary; with adjustments included in the period determined.
The key assumptions that materially affect the estimate of the reserves for loss and LAE are as follows:
•Many of the actuarial estimation methods assume that the speed of claim payments and claim closures, also known as cycle time, remains relatively consistent over time. While fluctuations and improvements in cycle time are expected as we grow, these timing changes can be difficult to discern from normal process risk variability in the data.
•For actuarial methods that rely on case reserve data, there is an implicit assumption that the adequacy of case reserve estimates stays relatively constant over time. For example, if the held case reserves represent the 50th percentile outcome for each claim, then any changes to this case reserve level, either higher or lower, would impact the ultimate loss estimates.
•Actuarial methods that rely on exposure bases, such as premiums or car years, perform better when the mix of business is relatively stable over time. Business growth can change the mix of business across several dimensions: new business versus renewal, geography profile, and underwriting profile. As such, prior estimates of claim frequency, claim severity, or loss ratio may not be as predictive of future results when the mix of business changes.
•Broader macro-level economics can have a material impact on loss reserve estimates, such as a rapid change in miles driven, unanticipated inflation, regulatory restrictions, and legal developments as they relate to contract and coverage interpretation and enforceability.
Due to the inherent uncertainty in determining our ultimate cost of settling claims, we evaluate what the potential impact on consolidated results of operations, financial position, and liquidity would be based on a hypothetical 5% and 10% increase or decrease in key assumptions described above. The loss reserve range estimated below represents a range of reasonably likely reserves, not a range of all possible outcomes. Therefore, the ultimate losses could reach levels outside the range provided. Given the growth in exposures from inception in 2015, we believe evaluating sensitivity based on a hypothetical increase or decrease of 5% and 10% reflects management’s best estimate and provides a scenario impact on the reserve ranges due to variability in key assumptions. The following table summarizes this sensitivity analysis:
Scenarios for Changes in Loss Reserves for all Accident Years
(dollars in millions)
Our loss and LAE reserves are recorded net of external reinsurance and net of amounts expected to be received from salvage (the amount recovered from the damaged property after we pay for a total loss) and subrogation (the right to recover payments from third parties).
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Reinsurance Recoverable and Receivable
We also estimate the amount of reinsurance recoverable and receivable from reinsurance contracts. Reinsurance assets include reinsurance recoverable and receivable on unpaid loss and LAE reserves, which are estimated as part of our loss reserving process and are subject to similar judgments and uncertainties. Estimating these amounts involves significant judgment, with key considerations including:
•paid and unpaid amounts recoverable;
•any balances in dispute or subject to legal collection;
•the financial well-being of a reinsurer; and
•the likelihood of collection of the reinsurance recovery considering factors such as, amounts outstanding and length of collection periods.
Recoverability of Net Deferred Tax Assets
We calculate the tax effects of temporary differences that give rise to deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification 740, Income Taxes, or ASC 740. The application of ASC 740 requires a company to evaluate the recoverability of deferred tax assets and to establish a valuation allowance if necessary to reduce the carrying value of the deferred tax asset to an amount that is more likely than not to be realized. Considerable judgment is required in determining whether a valuation allowance is necessary and, if so, the amount of such valuation allowance. In evaluating the need for a valuation allowance we consider many factors, including: (1) the nature of the deferred tax assets and liabilities; (2) whether they are ordinary or capital; (3) the timing of expected reversal; (4) taxable income in prior carry back years as well as projected taxable earnings exclusive of reversing temporary differences and carry forwards; (5) the length of time that carryovers can be used; (6) unique tax rules that would impact the utilization of the deferred tax assets; and (7) any tax planning strategies that we would employ to avoid a tax benefit expiring unused.
We may be unable to fully use our net operating losses, or NOLs, if at all. Under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code, or the Code, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change” (generally defined as a greater than 50% change, by value, in the corporation’s equity ownership by certain shareholders or groups of shareholders over a rolling three-year period), the corporation’s ability to use its pre-ownership change NOLs to offset its post-ownership change income may be limited. The limitation may be such that it prevents the Company from fully utilizing its NOLs existing at the time of the ownership change prior to their expiration, which could also result in a substantial reduction in the deferred tax asset. We currently carry a valuation allowance against our entire net deferred tax asset. As such, any reduction in the deferred tax asset would also result in an offsetting reduction in the valuation allowance.
Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.
We are exposed to certain interest and credit rate risks as part of our ongoing business operations.
Interest Rate Risk
We are exposed to interest rate risk on our investment portfolio. Interest rate risk represents the potential for losses resulting from adverse changes in market interest rates affecting our interest-bearing assets and liabilities. Our fixed maturity investments include United States Treasury and agency securities, municipal securities, corporate debt securities, and asset-backed securities, most of which are sensitive to changes in prevailing interest rates and may experience moderate fluctuations in fair value as a result. The fair market value of a portfolio of debt securities increases or decreases inversely with changes in market interest rates, while net investment income realized from future investments in debt securities increases or decreases along with interest rates. We monitor this exposure through periodic reviews of investment portfolio conducted by management.
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We are also exposed to interest rate risk through our Amended Term Loan, which bears interest at floating rates based on changes in the SOFR. Rising interest rates could increase our cost of debt, reduce cash available for operations, and have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition. As of December 31, 2025, a 100-basis-point increase or decrease in SOFR would not have a significant impact on our interest expense during 2026.
Credit Risk
We are exposed to credit risk on our investment portfolio, reinsurance contracts, and premiums receivable. Credit risk results from uncertainty in a counterparty’s ability to meet its obligations. We monitor our investment portfolio to ensure that credit risk does not exceed prudent levels. We manage the exposure to credit risk in our United States Treasury and agency securities, municipal securities, corporate debt securities, and asset-backed securities portfolio by investing in high credit quality, investment grade securities and diversifying our holdings. We manage the exposure to credit risk in our reinsurance contracts by obtaining reinsurance from a diverse group of reinsurers and monitoring concentration as well as financial strength ratings of the reinsurers to minimize counterparty credit risk. For certain reinsurance partners who are not rated, we require adequate levels of collateral or letters of credit to be available to us in the event of downside scenarios. We manage the exposure to significant losses on our premiums receivable through strategic initiatives focusing on improved customer communication, policy renewal adjustments, and risk segmentation.
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Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.
INDEX TO THE CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND SCHEDULES
Page
Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID: 34) 88
Consolidated Balance Sheets 90
Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Income (Loss) 91
Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows 93
Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements 94
Schedule II: Condensed Combined Financial Information of Registrant 128
Schedule V: Valuation and Qualifying Accounts 132
Schedules, other than those listed above, are omitted for the reason that they are not required, are not applicable or that equivalent information has been included in the consolidated financial statements or notes thereto or elsewhere herein.
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REPORT OF INDEPENDENT REGISTERED PUBLIC ACCOUNTING FIRM
To the Stockholders and the Board of Directors of Root, Inc.
Opinion on the Financial Statements
We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of Root, Inc. and subsidiaries (the "Company") as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the related consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss), redeemable convertible preferred stock and stockholders' equity, and cash flows, for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, and the related notes and the schedules listed in the Index at Item 8 (collectively referred to as the "financial statements"). In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2025, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.
We have also audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the Company's internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025, based on criteria established in Internal Control — Integrated Framework (2013) issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission and our report dated February 25, 2026, expressed an unqualified opinion on the Company's internal control over financial reporting.
Basis for Opinion
These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company's financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.
We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.
Critical Audit Matter
The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current-period audit of the financial statements that was communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved our especially challenging, subjective, or complex judgments. The communication of critical audit matters does not alter in any way our opinion on the financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates.
Loss and Loss Adjustment Expense Reserves – Refer to Notes 2 and 5 to the financial statements
Critical Audit Matter Description
Loss and loss adjustment expense reserves represent the liability established to cover the estimated ultimate cost to settle insured losses. The Company’s estimation of the liability for loss and loss adjustment expense reserves is complex and includes subjective considerations and management’s judgment.
Loss and loss adjustment expense reserves are inherently uncertain. Because actual experience can differ from key assumptions used in establishing reserves, there is potential for significant variation in the development of loss
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reserves, particularly related to those reserves where there is a longer time span between the incidence of a loss and the settlement of a claim. Given the subjectivity in estimating the ultimate loss and loss adjustment expense reserves, due to input variables such as historical and statistical information, inflation, contract interpretation, weather catastrophe impacts, regulatory environment, and economic conditions, among other factors, auditing loss and loss adjustment expense reserves, particularly related to those reserves with settlement over a longer period of time, involved an especially high degree of auditor judgment, including the need to involve our actuarial specialists.
How the Critical Audit Matter Was Addressed in the Audit
Our audit procedures related to loss and loss adjustment expense reserves included the following, among others:
•We tested the effectiveness of controls related to loss and loss adjustment expense reserves, including those over the Company’s actuarial estimate.
•We tested the completeness and accuracy of the underlying key data inputs that served as the basis for the actuarial estimate.
•With the assistance of our actuarial specialists, we used the Company’s claims data to develop a range of independent estimates for the loss and loss adjustment expense reserves, particularly related to those with settlement over a longer period of time. We used these independent estimates to assess the reasonableness of the Company’s reserves by comparing our estimates to the Company’s recorded loss and loss adjustment expense reserves.
•We compared the Company’s prior year estimates of expected loss and loss adjustment expense reserves to actual experience during the current year to identify potential bias in the determination of loss and loss adjustment expense reserves.
/s/ DELOITTE & TOUCHE LLP
Columbus, Ohio
We have served as the Company's auditor since 2017.
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ROOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS
(in millions, except par value)
Assets
Investments:
Other investments 4.4 4.4
Restricted cash and cash equivalents 20.6 1.0
Prepaid reinsurance premiums 6.3 25.1
Liabilities, Redeemable Convertible Preferred Stock and Stockholders’ Equity
Liabilities:
Loss and loss adjustment expense reserves $ 483.6 $ 413.2
Reinsurance premiums payable 2.4 32.8
Accounts payable and accrued expenses 74.2 71.1
Commitments and Contingencies (Note 13)
Stockholders’ equity:
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) 3.9 (2.3)
See Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements
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ROOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS AND COMPREHENSIVE INCOME (LOSS)
(in millions, except per share data)
Revenues:
Operating expenses:
Loss on extinguishment of debt — 5.4 —
Income (loss) before income tax expense 40.8 30.9 (147.4)
Income tax expense 0.5 — —
Net income attributable to participating securities 2.0 1.7 —
Net income (loss) attributable to common shareholders 38.3 29.2 (147.4)
Other comprehensive income (loss):
Changes in net unrealized gains on investments 6.2 0.2 3.3
Comprehensive income (loss) $ 46.5 $ 31.1 $ (144.1)
Earnings (loss) per common share: (both Class A and B)
Weighted-average common shares outstanding: (both Class A and B)
See Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements
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ROOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES
Shares Amount Class A Shares Class B Shares Amount
(in millions)
Other comprehensive income — — — — — — 3.3 — 3.3
Common stock—share-based compensation expense — — — — — 17.3 — — 17.3
Warrant compensation expense — — — — — 17.4 — — 17.4
Warrant issuance costs — — — — — (2.1) — — (2.1)
Net income — — — — — — — 30.9 30.9
Other comprehensive income — — — — — — 0.2 — 0.2
Conversion of Class B to Class A common stock — — 1.0 (1.0) — — — — —
Common stock—share-based compensation expense — — — — — 18.5 — — 18.5
Warrant compensation expense — — — — — 3.8 — — 3.8
Warrants issuance costs — — — — — (0.4) — — (0.4)
Net income — — — — — — — 40.3 40.3
Other comprehensive income — — — — — — 6.2 — 6.2
Conversion of Class B to Class A common stock — — 2.2 (2.2) — — — — —
Common stock—share-based compensation expense — — — — — 40.1 — — 40.1
Warrant compensation expense — — — — — 19.2 — — 19.2
See Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements
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ROOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS
(dollars in millions)
Cash flows from operating activities:
Warrant compensation expense 19.2 3.8 17.4
Loss on extinguishment of debt — 5.4 —
Gain on lease modification — — (0.3)
Changes in operating assets and liabilities:
Reinsurance recoverable and receivable 20.8 (24.8) 21.9
Losses and loss adjustment expenses reserves 70.4 129.0 (3.2)
Reinsurance premiums payable (30.4) (21.6) (65.4)
Accounts payable and accrued expenses 2.7 1.3 27.7
Net cash provided by (used in) operating activities 206.5 195.7 (33.6)
Cash flows from investing activities:
Proceeds from maturities, call and pay downs of investments 67.8 54.6 37.5
Sales of investments 2.0 0.6 2.2
Capitalization of internally developed software (14.1) (11.4) (9.2)
Purchases of fixed assets — (0.4) (0.2)
Net cash used in investing activities (91.7) (154.4) (45.7)
Cash flows from financing activities:
Proceeds from exercise of stock options and restricted stock units 0.3 0.1 —
Taxes paid related to net share settlement of equity awards (25.5) (15.1) (1.1)
Payment of preferred stock and related warrants issuance costs — (3.0) (3.0)
Repayments of long-term debt — (237.1) —
Net cash used in financing activities (25.2) (120.7) (4.1)
See Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements
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ROOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES
NOTES TO CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
1.NATURE OF BUSINESS
Root, Inc. is a holding company which, directly or indirectly, maintains 100% ownership of each of its subsidiaries, including, among others, Root Insurance Company, Root Property & Casualty Insurance Company, or Root Property & Casualty, both Ohio-domiciled insurance companies, Root Florida Insurance Company, or Root Florida, a Florida-domiciled insurance company formed in 2025, and Root Reinsurance Company, Ltd., a Cayman Islands-domiciled reinsurance company, together with Root, Inc., “we,” “us” or “our.”
We were formed in 2015 and began writing personal auto insurance in July 2016. We are a technology company operating primarily a direct-to-consumer model with the majority of our personal insurance customers acquired through mobile apps and partnerships. We offer auto and renters insurance products underwritten by Root Insurance Company and auto insurance only through Root Property & Casualty and Root Florida.
2.BASIS OF PRESENTATION AND SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES
Basis of Presentation and Consolidation—The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Root, Inc. and its subsidiaries, all of which are wholly owned.These financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States, or GAAP. All intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated.
Use of Estimates—The preparation of consolidated financial statements requires management to make certain estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates. Significant estimates reflected in our consolidated financial statements include, but are not limited to, reserves for loss and loss adjustment expense, or LAE, valuation allowances on our deferred tax assets and the amount of reinsurance recoverable and receivable from reinsurance contracts.
Legal and Other Contingencies—From time to time, we are party to litigation and legal proceedings relating to our business operations. We consider legal actions relating to claims made in the ordinary course of seeking indemnification for a loss covered by the insurance policy in establishing loss and LAE reserves. In the ordinary course of business, we also face certain lawsuits that seek damages beyond policy limits, or extra-contractual claims.
We continually evaluate potential liabilities and reserves for litigation and other matters using the guidance issued in the Financial Accounting Standards Board, or FASB, Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, Topic 450, Contingencies. Under this guidance, we may only record reserves for a loss if, as of the date the financial statements are issued or available to be issued, the likelihood of occurrence is deemed probable and we can reasonably estimate the amount of the loss. When disclosing litigation, claims or other matters where a material loss is judged to be reasonably possible, we will disclose an estimated range of loss or state that an estimate cannot be made. We consider each matter using this guidance and record reserves for losses as warranted by establishing a reserve in loss and loss adjustment expense reserves for extra-contractual claims and other liabilities for class action, other non-claims related lawsuits and other matters in our consolidated balance sheets. Any non-reinsurance related recoveries are recognized as other assets in our consolidated balance sheets. We record amounts within loss and loss adjustment expenses for extra-contractual claims and general and administrative for class action and other non-claims related lawsuits in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss). For other recoveries, we record these amounts in the same account as the initial expense in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss). Further details are discussed in Note 13, “Commitments and Contingencies.”
Debt and Equity Issuance Costs—Debt and equity issuance costs, which primarily consist of advisor, legal, accounting, and other third-party fees directly related to issuing debt and equity instruments, are capitalized as other assets in our consolidated balance sheets if incurred prior to closing the related transaction. We incurred such costs
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in connection with our $200.0 million six-year term loan, or Amended Term Loan, that we entered into on October 29, 2024 and the investment agreement with Carvana Group, LLC, or Investment Agreement, that we entered into on August 21, 2021. Upon close of the related transaction, these deferred issuance costs are generally offset against the related proceeds. Debt issuance costs are subsequently amortized over the term of the financing agreement as interest expense on the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss).
Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets—As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, we had insurance licenses of $8.9 million and an intangible asset related to the purchase of the Root.com domain of $1.3 million, including transaction costs, in other assets on the consolidated balance sheets. We incur a minimal fee to renew each license. These intangible assets are not amortized, but instead are tested for impairment annually or when indicators of impairment exist. The impairment test for indefinite-lived intangibles involves first assessing qualitative factors to determine if it is more likely than not that the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than its carrying amount. If so, then a quantitative test is performed to compare the estimated fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset to the respective asset's carrying amount. The evaluation requires the use of estimates and significant judgments and considers the weight of evidence and significance of all identified events and circumstances and most relevant drivers of fair value, both positive and negative, in determining whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than its carrying amount. No impairment was recognized for 2025, 2024 or 2023 related to indefinite-lived intangible assets.
Segment Information—We are a technology company that provides direct-to-consumer insurance products to customers. We operate as a single reporting segment that is managed on a consolidated basis. Our Chief Executive Officer is our chief operating decision maker, or CODM. The primary measure the CODM utilizes to manage operations, monitor budget versus actual results, and evaluate financial performance is net income (loss) as reported on the consolidated statements of comprehensive income (loss). This information is regularly provided to the CODM.
The CODM allocates resources based on consolidated expense and forecasted expense information. Significant expenses, which are presented on the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss), include loss and LAE, sales and marketing, other insurance expense and technology and development. Other segment items include expenses that our CODM does not evaluate for purposes of making operating decisions. These items include general and administrative, interest expense, loss on extinguishment of debt and income tax expense, which can all be found on the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss). Assets provided to the CODM are consistent with those reported on the consolidated balance sheets.
Statement of Cash Flows—The supplemental disclosures for cash and non-cash flows for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023 are as follows:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Supplemental disclosures:
Federal income taxes paid — — —
State income taxes paid 0.6 — —
Cash, Cash Equivalents, Restricted Cash and Restricted Cash Equivalents—Cash consists of cash on deposit. Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that typically mature within three months from the date of origination or purchase and are principally stated at amortized cost, which approximates their fair value. Restricted cash consists of amounts held by a financial institution to satisfy letter of credit requirements for certain property leases. Restricted cash equivalents consist of short-term, highly liquid investments held by a financial institution to maintain certain collateral requirements with an unaffiliated Texas county mutual insurance company and are stated at amortized cost, which approximates their fair value.
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If checks are issued in excess of cash balances in individual bank accounts, a book overdraft shall be reclassified to accounts payable on the consolidated balance sheets. When a check is issued whereby a disbursement account is used to write the check, but the account is not funded until the check is presented for payment this “negative cash” balance is included in cash and cash equivalents on the consolidated balance sheets, if the funding account has sufficient funds.
Investments—Investments in debt securities are classified as short-term and available-for-sale fixed maturity securities and are carried at fair value with any unrealized gains and losses, net of taxes, recorded as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss).
Management regularly reviews our securities for signs of impairment, an assessment requiring significant management judgment. The criteria that management considers are the financial condition of the issuer, including receipt of scheduled principal and interest cash flows, fair value of a security that has fallen below the amortized value, maturity dates, current economic conditions and intent to sell, including if it is more likely than not that we will be required to sell the security before recovery. We then assess whether the decline in value is due to non-credit related or credit related factors. Non-credit related declines in fair value are recorded as unrealized losses in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss). If we determine that the decline is credit related, we establish an allowance for credit losses equal to the difference between the discounted cash flow model and the amortized value, the allowance would be recorded in net realized gains and losses on investments in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss). This allowance may be subsequently adjusted for recoveries or further credit losses. No such credit losses were recognized in 2025, 2024 and 2023.
Other investments primarily consist of private equity investments without a readily determinable fair value. We elected to account for these investments at cost minus any impairment, plus or minus changes resulting from observable price changes in orderly transactions for an identical or a similar investment of the same issuer. Such changes are accounted for within net investment income in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss).
We also invest in Low Income Housing Tax Credits, or LIHTC, projects by way of investing in a limited liability entity to offset certain state premium taxes. The purpose of these investments is to encourage private capital investments into regions within these states that are in need of economic development, while providing tax credits and operating loss tax benefits to investors. We account for this investment using the cost method because our interest in the limited liability entity is minor and we have virtually no influence over the entity’s operating and financial policies. When we utilize the tax credits, the associated investment becomes impaired. Impairment of the investment is recognized within net investment income in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss).
Fair Value Measurements—Fair value is defined as the price that would be received upon selling an asset or the price paid to transfer a liability on the measurement date in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between willing market participants. A three-tier hierarchy is established as a basis for considering such assumptions and for inputs used in the valuation methodologies in measuring fair value. This hierarchy requires entities to maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. The three levels of inputs used to measure fair values are:
Level 1 - Financial assets and liabilities for which inputs are observable and are obtained from reliable quoted prices in active markets for identical assets and liabilities.
Level 2 - Financial assets and liabilities for which values are based on quoted prices in markets that are not active or for which values are based on similar assets and liabilities that are actively traded. This also includes pricing models for which the inputs are corroborated by market data.
Level 3 - Financial assets and liabilities for which values are based on prices or valuation techniques that require inputs that are both unobservable and significant to the overall fair value measurement.
Private equity investments that have been remeasured as of December 31, 2025 due to an observable event or impairment are classified within Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy because their estimated fair values are based on
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valuation methodologies that may include a combination of the observable transaction price at the transaction date and other unobservable inputs, including volatility and the rights and obligations associated with the investments we hold. See Note 3, “Investments,” for further information on our private equity investments.
Leases—We record leases in accordance with ASC Topic 842, Leases. We recognized a right-of-use asset and liability on the consolidated balance sheets for all leases, except for leases covering a period of fewer than 12 months. Operating lease expense for operating lease right-of-use assets is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term, which may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain to do so and there is a significant economic incentive to exercise that option. For additional information refer to Note 8, “Leases.”
Premiums, Premiums Receivable and Premium Write-offs—Premiums written are deferred and earned pro rata over the policy period. Unearned premium is established to cover the unexpired portion of premiums written. A premium deficiency, as measured on a gross basis, is recorded when the sum of expected losses, LAE, unamortized policy acquisition costs and maintenance costs exceed the recorded unearned premium reserve and anticipated investment income. We did not record a premium deficiency reserve in 2025, 2024 or 2023.
We have a fronting arrangement with an unaffiliated Texas county mutual insurance company, or the fronting carrier. We route all of our new auto policies in Texas through the fronting carrier whereby we assume 100% of the related premium and losses on those policies. The fronting arrangement allows us to have greater rating and underwriting flexibility. Premiums assumed are deferred and earned pro rata over the policy period. Unearned premium is established to cover the unexpired portion of premiums assumed. Unaffiliated premiums payable are amounts owed to the fronting carrier for premiums assumed and are recorded in other liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets. Unaffiliated premiums payable was $96.7 million and $84.2 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Unaffiliated reinsurance premiums receivable are the amounts owed to us from the fronting carrier for reinsurance premiums and are recorded in reinsurance recoverable and receivable on the consolidated balance sheets. Unaffiliated reinsurance premiums receivable was $96.3 million and $83.6 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.
Premiums receivable represents premiums written but not yet collected. Generally, premiums are collected prior to providing risk coverage, minimizing our exposure to credit risk. Due to a variety of factors, certain premiums billed may not be collected, for which we establish an allowance for expected credit losses based primarily on an analysis of historical collection experience, adjusted for current economic conditions. Allowance for credit losses was $8.9 million and $9.8 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, on the consolidated balance sheets. A policy is considered past due on the first day after its due date and policies greater than 90 days past due are written-off. We recognized bad debt expense of $36.7 million, $34.1 million and $12.5 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively.
Fee Income—Fee income consists primarily of the flat fee we charge for installment payments which relates to the additional administrative costs associated with processing more frequent billings. These fees are recognized in the period in which we process the installment. We also charge policy fees, which are typically nonrefundable fees that are intended to reimburse a portion of the costs incurred to underwrite the policy. These fees are recognized ratably over the policy coverage period. Fee income also includes late payment fees that are collected from our policyholders. These fees are recognized in the period in which we process the late payment.
Other Income—Other income is primarily comprised of revenue earned from distributing website and mobile application policy inquiry leads in geographies where we do not have a presence, recognized when we generate the lead.
Sales and Marketing—Sales and marketing includes both acquisition and fixed expenses. We view direct performance marketing, experimental marketing, channel media, advertising and referral fees as acquisition expenses. We view sponsorship and related salaries, health benefits, bonuses, employee retirement plan-related expenses and employee share-based compensation expense, or Personnel Costs, and overhead allocated based on headcount, or Overhead, related to our brand strategy, creative and business development activities, certain data science activities and certain non-commission expenses related to the partnership channel as fixed expenses. Sales and marketing costs are expensed as incurred.
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Other Insurance Expense—Other insurance expense includes expenses primarily related to insurance and underwriting operations of the business and is comprised of acquisition, variable and fixed expenses. We view report costs and refunds related to these expenses and commission expenses related to our partnership channel as acquisition costs. We view premium taxes, credit card and policy processing expenses and premium write-offs as variable expenses. We view insurance license expenses, warrant compensation expense related to policies originating through the integrated automobile insurance solution for Carvana’s online buying platform, or Integrated Platform, low-income housing tax credits which offset certain state premium taxes, Personnel Costs and Overhead related to actuarial and certain data science activities as fixed expenses.
We amortize a portion of our deferred policy acquisition costs including certain commissions related to our partnership channel, premium taxes, and report costs related to the successful acquisition of a policy. Tax credits are recognized when utilized. Other insurance expense is expensed as incurred, except for costs related to deferred policy acquisition costs that are capitalized and subsequently amortized over the same period in which the related premiums are earned. Warrant compensation expense is recognized on a pro-rata basis considering progress toward achieving milestones for policies originated through the Integrated Platform as defined under the Carvana commercial agreement.
These expenses are recognized net of ceding commissions earned from our quota share reinsurance agreements. The ceding commission provides for reimbursement of both direct and other periodic acquisition costs, including certain underwriting and marketing costs, and is presented as a reduction of other insurance expense.
Technology and Development—Technology and development are fixed expenses that consist of software development costs related to our mobile app and homegrown information technology systems; third-party services related to infrastructure support; Personnel Costs and Overhead for engineering, product, technology, and certain data science activities; and amortization of internally developed software. Technology and development is expensed as incurred, except for development and testing costs related to internally developed software that are capitalized and subsequently amortized over the expected useful life.
General and Administrative—General and administrative are fixed expenses that primarily relate to external professional service expenses; Personnel Costs and Overhead for corporate functions; and depreciation expense for computers, furniture and other fixed assets; and restructuring costs which include employee costs, real estate exit costs and other costs. General and administrative expenses are expensed as incurred.
Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs—Policy acquisition costs consist primarily of premium taxes, certain marketing costs and underwriting expenses, and commission expenses related to our partnership channel, net of ceding commissions, related to the successful acquisition of new or renewal business. They are deferred and amortized over the same period in which the related premiums are earned. Ceding commissions relating to reinsurance agreements are recorded as a reimbursement for both deferrable and non-deferrable acquisition costs. The portion of the ceding commission that is equal to the pro rata share of policy acquisition costs based on quota share percentage is recorded as an offset to the gross deferred policy acquisition costs. Any portion of the ceding commission that exceeds the policy acquisition costs of the business ceded is recorded as excess ceding commission, a deferred liability, and amortized over the same period in which the related premiums are earned. Deferred policy acquisition costs, net of accumulated amortization, was $44.4 million and $29.3 million as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. We amortized deferred policy acquisition costs of $97.4 million, $35.7 million and $35.1 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively.
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Loss and Loss Adjustment Expense and Reserves—Loss and LAE include the costs incurred for claims, payments made and estimated future payments to be made to or on behalf of our policyholders, including expenses needed to adjust or settle claims, net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. Loss and LAE reserves include an amount determined using adjuster determined case-base estimates for reported claims and actuarial determined unpaid claim estimates using past experience and historical emergence patterns for unreported losses and LAE. These reserves are a liability established to cover the estimated ultimate cost to settle insured losses. The estimation of the liability for loss and LAE reserves is complex and includes subjective considerations and management’s judgment. The actuarial methods to determine unpaid loss estimates consider loss trends, contract interpretation, mix of business, regulatory environment, economic conditions, inflation and other risk factors impacting claims settlement. The method used to estimate unpaid LAE liability is based on claims transaction data, including the relative cost of adjusting and settling a range of claim types from express material damage claims to more complex injury cases. There is considerable uncertainty associated with the actuarial estimates, and therefore no assurance can be made that the ultimate unpaid claim liability will not vary materially from such estimates. These loss estimates are continually reviewed by management and adjusted as necessary, with adjustments included in the period determined and recorded in loss and LAE in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss). As such, loss and LAE reserves represent management’s best estimate of the ultimate liability related to reported and unreported claims.
Our loss and LAE reserves are recorded gross of reinsurance and net of amounts expected to be received from salvage (the amount recovered from a total loss claims expense) and subrogation (the right to recover payments from third parties).
Loss and LAE are net of amounts ceded to reinsurers. We enter into reinsurance contracts to limit our exposure to potential losses as well as to provide additional capacity to write more business. These expenses are a function of the size and term of the insurance policies we write and the loss experience associated with the underlying risks. This includes an allowance for credit losses based on the probability of default and expected loss given default of a reinsurer. Loss and LAE may be paid out over a period of years.
Various other expenses incurred during claims processing are considered LAE. These amounts include Personnel Costs for claims-related employees, vendor expenses, software expense, internally developed software amortization, and Overhead.
Reinsurance—In the ordinary course of business, we cede and retrocede a portion of our business written and assumed, respectively, to reinsurers to limit the maximum net loss potential arising from large risks and catastrophes. These arrangements, known as treaties, provide for reinsurance coverage on quota-share and excess-of-loss basis. All reinsurance contracts provide for indemnification against loss or liability relating to insurance risk and have been accounted for as reinsurance. Although the ceding of reinsurance does not discharge us from our primary liability to the policyholder, the insurance company that assumes the coverage assumes the related liability. Over time, our strategy continues to evolve and we may choose to amend, commute, and/or non-renew certain third-party reinsurance agreements, which may result in us retaining more or less of our business in the future. Amounts recoverable from and payable to reinsurers are estimated in a manner consistent with the claim liability associated with the reinsured business. Reinsurance premiums, commissions and expense reimbursements related to reinsured business are accounted for on a basis consistent with the basis used in accounting for the original policies issued and the terms of the reinsurance contracts. Premiums ceded to other companies have been reported as a reduction of premiums earned and are recognized over the remaining policy period based on the reinsurance protection provided. Amounts applicable to reinsurance ceded for unearned premium reserves are reported as a prepaid reinsurance premiums asset in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and as reduction of unearned premiums in Note 6, “Reinsurance.” Ceding commissions received in connection with reinsurance ceded have been accounted for as a reduction of other insurance expense in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss).
Some of our reinsurance agreements provide for adjustment of amount of coverage based on loss experience. We recognize the asset or liability arising from these adjustable features in the period the adjustment occurs, which is calculated based on experience to date under the agreement.
In the event that all or any of the reinsuring companies might be unable to meet their obligations under existing reinsurance agreements, we would be liable for such defaulted amounts. We evaluate and monitor the financial
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condition associated with our reinsurers in order to minimize our exposure to significant losses from reinsurer insolvencies. We obtain our reinsurance from a diverse group of reinsurers and monitor concentration as well as financial strength ratings of the reinsurers to minimize counterparty credit risk. To recognize this risk of credit loss, we have established an allowance for credit losses based on the probability of default and the expected loss given default as influenced by factors such as the reinsurer’s credit rating and average life of our reinsurance recoverables.
Income Taxes—For the 2025 tax year, we will file a consolidated federal income tax return with Caret Holdings, Inc., Root Insurance Company, Root Property & Casualty, Root Florida, Root Lone Star Insurance Agency, Inc. and Root Reinsurance Company, Ltd. The consolidated return also includes Root Insurance Agency, LLC, Root Enterprise, LLC, Root Republic Managing General Agency, LLC, Root Texas Managing General Agency, LLC, and Root Scout, LLC, which are disregarded entities under Caret Holdings, Inc. for federal income tax purposes.
Income taxes are accounted for under the asset and liability method. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributable to differences between the carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases and operating loss and tax credit carryforwards. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date.
Deferred tax assets are recognized as allowed under ASC 740, Income Taxes. We establish a valuation allowance when there is more likely than not insufficient evidence to support the recoverability of the deferred tax asset under ASC 740. In making such a determination, management considers all available positive and negative evidence, including future reversals of existing taxable temporary differences, projected future taxable income, tax planning strategies, and results of recent operations. If it is determined that the deferred tax assets would be realizable in the future in excess of their net recorded amount, an adjustment would be made to the deferred tax asset valuation allowance, which would reduce the provision for income taxes. A valuation allowance of $339.8 million and $345.9 million was established as of December 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Further details are discussed in Note 9, “Income Taxes.”
We recognize the tax benefits of uncertain tax positions only when the position is more likely than not to be sustained under examination by the appropriate taxing authority. Interest and penalties on our reserve for uncertain tax positions are recognized as a component of tax expense. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, we did not have any unrecognized tax benefits for uncertain tax positions and had no accrued interest or penalties related to uncertain tax positions.
Internally Developed Software—We review our software development activity and capitalize costs during the application development phase under ASC 350-40, Internal-Use Software. Generally, these costs are amortized on a straight-line basis over a five-year period. Internally developed software costs are assessed for impairment at least quarterly, which also ensures that the assets are still in service. If there are assets identified as no longer in use or impaired, the remaining unamortized costs will be fully amortized or the asset is written off. We amortized internally developed software of $8.5 million, $8.6 million and $6.3 million for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. The capitalized cost and accumulated amortization of internally developed software in other assets in our consolidated balance sheets at December 31, 2025 and 2024 are as follows:
As of December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Internally developed software $ 57.4 $ 50.0
Accumulated amortization (29.8) (28.0)
Internally developed software, net $ 27.6 $ 22.0
Fixed Assets—Fixed Assets are carried at cost, net of accumulated depreciation. We capitalize purchases of certain fixed assets, including computers, furniture, and leasehold improvements. Depreciation on computers and furniture is recognized on a straight-line basis over a useful life of three years and five years, respectively.
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Depreciation on leasehold improvements is recognized on a straight-line basis over the shorter of their useful life or the life of the lease. When certain events or changes in operating conditions occur, an impairment assessment may be performed on the recoverability of the carrying amounts. When assets are no longer in use or impaired, the asset and accumulated depreciation are written off. For the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023, depreciation expense was $0.2 million, $1.0 million and $1.5 million, respectively. The capitalized cost and accumulated depreciation of fixed assets in other assets in our consolidated balance sheets at December 31, 2025 and 2024 are as follows:
As of December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Computers $ 1.7 $ 6.0
Leasehold improvements 5.3 7.2
Total fixed assets, at cost 8.0 15.8
Accumulated depreciation (6.8) (14.0)
Fixed assets, net $ 1.2 $ 1.8
Employee Share-Based Compensation—We award share-based compensation to our officers, directors, employees, and certain advisors, through approval from the Compensation Committee of the board of directors. These awards have been made in the forms of stock options, service-based restricted stock units, or RSUs, market-based restricted stock units, or MRSUs, performance-based restricted stock units, or PRSUs, and restricted stock.
Share-based compensation expense is recognized based on the grant date fair value of the awards, which is determined using the Black-Scholes Merton, or BSM, option-pricing model. The BSM option pricing model requires inputs based on certain subjective assumptions, including the expected stock price volatility, the expected term of the options (generally ten years from grant date), the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of the option, and our expected dividend yield.
We recognize forfeitures as they occur, which generally results in the reversal of previously recognized expense for nonvested awards. In the event of an involuntary termination that results in the cancellation of an award, the remaining unrecognized compensation cost for the entire award is recognized in the period of cancellation. If the award is cancelled and concurrently replaced upon termination, it follows modification accounting, typically as a Type III improbable-to-probable modification whereby it is effectively treated as a forfeiture and new grant as of the date of termination. For performance-based awards, expense is not recognized until it is probable that the performance condition(s) will be met. We assess the probability of the awards vesting based on the performance conditions on a quarterly basis. If a performance condition is improbable but later becomes probable of achievement, a catch up of expense will be recorded as if the award had been vesting on a ratable basis from the grant date. If a performance condition is not achieved or becomes improbable of achievement, the respective cumulative compensation cost is reversed. For market-based awards, if the market condition(s) are never achieved before the expiration date, but the service condition is met, the respective compensation costs remain recognized.
Stock options generally vested over four years, with 25% cliff vesting after one year and approximately 2% vesting each month over three years thereafter. RSUs generally vest over two or four years. For our awards vesting over two years, 50% cliff vests after one year and the remainder vest in equal quarterly installments over the following year. For our awards vesting over four years, 25% cliff vests after one year and the remainder vest in equal quarterly or monthly installments over three years thereafter. Certain other RSUs fully vest after one year. We generally recognize share-based compensation expense ratably over the respective vesting period.
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PRSUs granted in 2024 are expected to vest over an explicit service period of two to three years after the performance period and are dependent upon the fulfillment of both a service condition and the achievement of certain adjusted EBITDA and new writings goals during the performance period. The actual number of PRSUs earned can vary from zero to 200% of the target depending on goal achievement relative to the adjusted EBITDA and new writings goal matrix. The performance period begins on January 1, 2025 and ends on December 31, 2025. For our awards vesting over three years, 25% vests on the Compensation Committee certification date, expected to be in February 2026, and 25% vests annually over approximately three years thereafter. For our awards vesting over two years, 33% vests on the Compensation Committee certification date and approximately 8% vests quarterly over approximately two years thereafter. The expense is recognized ratably over the requisite service period.
The performance period for PRSUs granted in 2025 begins on January 1, 2025 and ends on December 31, 2027 and is divided into three sub-performance periods, each beginning on January 1, 2025 and ending on December 31, 2025, 2026, and 2027, respectively. These overlapping sub-periods are one, two, and three years in duration. The actual number of PRSUs that vest can vary from zero to 200% of the target depending on goal achievement relative to gross accident period loss ratio and policies in force goal matrix. Expense for each sub-performance period is recognized ratably over the requisite service period. Awards earned in any sub-performance period vest on the Compensation Committee certification date, which is expected to be in the first quarter of the subsequent year.
The PRSU compensation expense is recognized based on the grant date fair value of the award, which was determined using the Company’s closing stock price as of the grant date.
MRSUs are expected to vest over a derived service period of one to four years and are dependent upon the fulfillment of both a service condition and the achievement of stock-price goals during the performance period, with the latter being classified as a market condition according to ASC 718, Stock Compensation. The service condition with respect to the first and second tranches of MRSUs was satisfied on April 1, 2024 and April 1 2025, respectively. The remaining two tranches of MRSUs will be met in installments on each of the subsequent two anniversaries of that date, or Vesting Date Requirement, subject to the individual’s continued service through such dates. Stock price goals must be met on or after the respective tranche’s Vesting Date Requirement and are based on the average closing price per share of our Class A common stock over a consecutive 45-day trading period. Any tranche of MRSUs with respect to which the stock price goal has not been met as of April 1, 2028 (the final day of the performance period) will be forfeited as of such date.
The MRSU compensation expense is recognized based on the grant date fair value of the award, which was determined by simulating Root’s stock prices using a Monte Carlo simulation in a risk-neutral framework, assuming a Geometric Brownian Motion. The simulation is repeated 100,000 times, and the average of the discounted values for each tranche is the grant date fair value for that tranche. The median time to vest is the derived service period.
Employing a Monte Carlo simulation requires a range of inputs for each uncertain variable, and establishing linkage between the assumptions, if necessary. Inputs and assumptions used in our analysis included our stock price at grant date, exercise prices, the term of the MRSUs, equity volatility, risk-free rate and dividend yield. Equity volatility was derived using a blended volatility assumption of 50% weight on Root’s historical volatility calculated from daily stock returns since IPO to the grant date and a 50% weight based on Root’s term matched simple average peer volatility as of the valuation date because our company-specific volatility is not sufficient by itself at the time of grant.
The fair value of the MRSUs is estimated on the date of grant using a Monte Carlo simulation with Geometric Brownian Motion that uses certain inputs, assumptions and estimates, as follows: expected term of approximately five years, based on the contractual term of the MRSUs; risk-free interest rate of 4.06%, based on United States Constant Maturity Yield Curve over a similar term; dividend rate of 0.0%, based on our historical and expected future dividend payouts; and volatility of 76%, and other factors.
MRSU expense is recognized via a graded vesting method over the derived service period. In the event that both the service condition and market condition are met earlier, expense would be accelerated.
Warrant Compensation—In October 2021, we closed the Investment Agreement with Carvana that included the issuance of 14.1 million shares of redeemable convertible preferred stock designated as the Series A Convertible
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Preferred Stock and the issuance of eight tranches of warrants to purchase shares of the Company’s Class A common stock, of which three tranches expired unexercised in 2025. As part of the Investment Agreement, we and Carvana also entered into a five-year commercial agreement whereby our auto insurance products will be embedded into the Integrated Platform. The commercial agreement provides for agent commissions payable to Carvana for policy origination and an enterprise total loss replacement vehicle solution.
The Carvana warrants compensation expense is recognized based on the grant date fair value of the award, which was determined using a Monte Carlo simulation in a risk-neutral framework, as contemplated in the Income Approach of valuation. Specifically, future equity is simulated in each period assuming a Geometric Brownian Motion. We considered the features of the warrants and the interdependency of exercise decisions between the Short-Term Warrants and the Long-Term Warrants in using the Monte Carlo simulation in order to determine the optimum exercise decision. The optimum exercise decision was made by choosing the option which would give the highest aggregate expected value to the holder in each of the 100,000 simulated paths. The payoff of each path is then calculated based on the simulated equity and discounted back to time zero using the applicable risk-free rates. The fair value of the warrants are then calculated as the average value from all simulation paths.
Employing a Monte Carlo simulation with Geometric Brownian Motion requires a range of inputs for each uncertain variable, and establishing linkage between the assumptions, if necessary. Inputs and assumptions used in our analysis included our stock price at grant date, exercise prices, the term of the warrants, equity volatility, risk-free rate and dividend yield. Additional considerations included a discount for lack of marketability resulting from Carvana’s five-year lock-up period.
These warrants vest as the parties develop an integrated automobile insurance solution for the Integrated Platform and insurance sales through the Integrated Platform. The associated compensation expense is dependent on our periodic assessment of the probability of the milestones being achieved. If deemed probable, we recognize compensation expense on a pro-rata basis considering progress toward achieving the milestones. If a performance condition is no longer probable of achievement, any previously recognized compensation expense is reversed and no subsequent compensation expense is recognized until achievement is once again probable, at which point a cumulative catch-up is recognized. In determining the classification as equity, we followed guidance issued within ASC 480, Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity, and ASC 815, Derivatives and Hedging.
For additional information refer to Note 12, “Share-Based Compensation.”
Earnings (Loss) Per Share—Earnings (loss) per share, or EPS, results are a key indicator of the overall performance relative to each share of our outstanding common stock. Basic earnings per share is calculated using the two-step method. Undistributed earnings are allocated to participating securities based on the extent to which each class may share in earnings as if all the earnings for the period have been distributed. Basic earnings per share is calculated by dividing net income attributable to common shareholders by the weighted-average number of common shares outstanding for the period. Common shares, when contingencies, such as vesting requirements, exist and have not been satisfied, are excluded from basic earnings per share.
Our shares of Class A and Class B common stock are entitled to the same liquidation and dividend rights and therefore earnings are allocated equally. Our redeemable convertible preferred stock and nonvested shares subject to repurchase are considered to be participating securities because they participate in dividends that are non-forfeitable and distributions with common stock.
Diluted EPS for both Class A and Class B common stock includes all the components of basic EPS, plus the dilutive effect of common stock equivalents, but excludes those common stock equivalents from the calculation of diluted EPS when the effect of inclusion, assessed individually, would be anti-dilutive. The dilutive effect of stock options, nonvested shares subject to repurchase, RSUs, PRSUs, MRSUs, and warrants are calculated using the treasury stock method. The dilutive effect of redeemable convertible preferred stock is calculated using the if-converted method.
For periods in which we operate at a loss, the conversion of common stock equivalents would increase the denominator of the diluted earnings per share calculation and create a lower loss per share. Therefore, these common stock equivalents are considered antidilutive and diluted EPS is equal to basic EPS. Participating securities do not
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participate in losses and therefore are not allocated in the two-class method. Further details are discussed in Note 14, “Earnings (Loss) Per Share.”
Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements—In December 2023, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update, or ASU, No. 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, or ASU 2023-09. This ASU looks to enhance the transparency and decision usefulness of income tax disclosures primarily related to the rate reconciliation and income taxes paid information. The main provisions to the rate reconciliation disclosure require public entities on an annual basis to disclose specific categories in the rate reconciliation and provide additional information for reconciling items that meet a quantitative threshold. The main provisions to the income taxes paid disclosure require that all entities disclose on an annual basis the amount of income taxes paid disaggregated by federal, state and foreign taxes and the amount of income taxes paid disaggregated by individual jurisdictions in which income taxes paid meets a quantitative threshold. This ASU also requires all entities to disclose income (loss) from continuing operations before income tax expense (benefit) disaggregated between domestic and foreign and income tax expense (benefit) from continuing operations disaggregated by federal, state and foreign. ASU 2023-09 became effective for the annual reporting period beginning January 1, 2025, and we adopted the standard as of that date on a prospective basis. The adoption did not have an impact on our results of operations or financial condition.
Recently Issued Financial Accounting Standards Not Yet Adopted—In December 2025, the FASB issued ASU No. 2025-11, Interim Reporting (Topic 270): Narrow-Scope Improvements. This ASU clarifies the scope of interim reporting, improves the form and content requirements for interim financial statements, and consolidates interim disclosure requirements within Topic 270. This ASU also introduces a new disclosure principle requiring entities to disclose information about events or changes in circumstances since the last annual reporting period that have a material impact on the company.
This ASU may be applied prospectively or retrospectively with an effective date for public entities for interim periods within annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted. We are currently evaluating the effects of the new standard. We are currently evaluating the impact of this ASU.
In September 2025, the FASB issued ASU No. 2025-06, Intangibles—Goodwill and Other—Internal-Use Software (Subtopic 350-40): Targeted Improvements to the Accounting For Internal-Use Software. This ASU removes references to prescriptive and sequential software development stages in the guidance and instead requires entities to capitalize software development costs once management has authorized and committed to funding the project and it is probable that the project will be completed and the software will be used for its intended function. The guidance also requires entities to evaluate whether significant development uncertainty exists, which may delay capitalization until such uncertainty has been resolved. This ASU also specifies that the disclosure requirements in ASC 360-10 are required for all capitalized internal-use software costs.
This ASU may be applied prospectively, retrospectively, or through a modified transition approach with an effective date for all entities for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027, including interim periods within those reporting periods. Early adoption is permitted. We are currently evaluating the impact of this ASU.
In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU No. 2024-03, Income Statement—Reporting Comprehensive Income—Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses. This ASU looks to improve financial reporting by requiring that public business entities disclose additional information about specific expense categories in the notes to financial statements at interim and annual reporting periods. The main provisions require a company to disclose in the notes to the financial statements the amounts of employee compensation, depreciation, intangible asset amortization and certain other costs and expenses included in each relevant expense caption and include certain amounts that are already required to be disclosed under current generally accepted accounting principles in the same disclosure as the other disaggregation requirements. It also requires a company to disclose a qualitative description of the amounts remaining in relevant expense captions that are not separately disaggregated quantitatively and the total amount of selling expenses and, in annual reporting periods, an entity’s definition of selling expenses.
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This ASU is to be applied on a prospective basis with an effective date for the first annual reporting period beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods within annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted. We are currently evaluating the impact of this ASU.
3.INVESTMENTS
The amortized cost and fair value of short-term investments and available-for-sale fixed maturity securities at December 31, 2025 and 2024 are as follows:
(dollars in millions)
Fixed maturities:
United States Treasury securities and agencies $ 48.4 $ — $ 0.8 $ — $ 49.2
(dollars in millions)
Fixed maturities:
United States Treasury securities and agencies $ 46.5 $ — $ — $ (0.3) $ 46.2
Short-term investments 14.8 — — — 14.8
Management reviewed the available-for-sale fixed maturity securities and short-term investments at each balance sheet date to consider whether it was necessary to recognize a credit loss as of December 31, 2025 and 2024. We do not intend to sell the investments and it is not more likely than not that we will be required to sell the security before recovery. Management concluded that the unrealized losses on the available-for-sale fixed maturity securities and short-term investments were due to non-credit related factors and, therefore, there was no allowance for credit loss as of December 31, 2025 and 2024.
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The following tables reflect the gross unrealized losses and fair value of short-term investments and available-for-sale fixed maturity securities, aggregated by investment category and length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position at December 31, 2025 and 2024:
Less than 12 Months 12 Months or More Total
Fair Value UnrealizedLoss Fair Value UnrealizedLoss Fair Value UnrealizedLoss
(dollars in millions)
Fixed maturities:
United States Treasury securities $ 2.0 $ — $ 0.7 $ — $ 2.7 $ —
Municipal securities — — 6.5 (0.1) 6.5 (0.1)
Less than 12 Months 12 Months or More Total
Fair Value UnrealizedLoss Fair Value UnrealizedLoss Fair Value UnrealizedLoss
(dollars in millions)
Fixed maturities:
Short-term investments 6.4 — — — 6.4 —
Other Investments
As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, other investments related to our private equity investments were $4.4 million. There were no realized or unrealized gains or losses or impairment losses recognized on private equity investments for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023.
There were no realized gains or losses on short-term investments and available-for-sale fixed maturities for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023.
The following table sets forth the amortized cost and fair value of short-term investments and available-for-sale fixed maturity securities by contractual maturity at December 31, 2025:
Amortized Cost Fair Value
(dollars in millions)
Due in one year or less $ 25.4 $ 25.4
Due after one year through five years 253.0 255.9
Due five years through 10 years 54.1 54.8
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The following table sets forth the components of net investment income for the years ended December 31, 2025, 2024 and 2023:
For the Years Ended December 31,
(dollars in millions)
Interest on fixed maturities and short-term investments $ 14.7 $ 9.6 $ 4.8
Investment expense (6.4) (5.6) (2.6)
The following tables summarize the credit ratings of short-term investments and available-for-sale fixed maturity securities at December 31, 2025 and 2024:
Amortized Cost Fair Value % of TotalFair Value
S&P Global rating or equivalent (dollars in millions)
Amortized Cost Fair Value % of TotalFair Value
S&P Global rating or equivalent (dollars in millions)
Pursuant to certain regulatory requirements, we are required to hold assets on deposit with various state insurance departments for the benefit of policyholders. These special deposits are included in available-for-sale fixed maturity securities on the consolidated balance sheets. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, these required deposits had an amortized cost of $15.7 million and $15.8 million, respectively, and fair value of $15.9 million and $15.6 million, respectively. We maintain restricted cash equivalents and certain investments in a trust to meet collateral requirements with the fronting carrier. As of December 31, 2025, we held investments in the trust of $77.0 million. There are withdrawal and other restrictions on these deposits. Ultimately, when unearned premiums run off and loss reserves are paid under this program, any remaining trust balances will be released and available for general use.
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4.FAIR VALUE OF FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
The following tables provide information about our financial assets measured and reported at fair value as of December 31, 2025 and 2024:
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 TotalFair Value
(dollars in millions)
Assets
Fixed maturities:
United States Treasury securities and agencies $ 46.7 $ 2.5 $ — $ 49.2
Municipal securities — 23.2 — 23.2
Corporate debt securities — 159.0 — 159.0
Cash equivalents and restricted cash equivalents 388.0 — — 388.0
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 TotalFair Value
(dollars in millions)
Assets
Fixed maturities:
United States Treasury securities and agencies $ 46.2 $ — $ — $ 46.2
Municipal securities — 23.5 — 23.5
Corporate debt securities — 105.7 — 105.7
We estimate the fair value of all our different classes of Level 2 fixed maturities and short-term investments by using quoted prices from a combination of an independent pricing vendor or broker/dealer, pricing models, quoted prices of securities with similar characteristics or discounted cash flows. All significant inputs were observable in the active markets.
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Fair Value of Long-Term Debt
The carrying amount of long-term debt is recorded at the unpaid balance, net of discount and debt issuance costs, and includes interest payable. The fair value of outstanding long-term debt as of December 31, 2025 was classified within Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy. The fair value was based on a model referencing observable interest rates and spreads to project and discount cash flows to present value. As of December 31, 2025 and 2024, the carrying amounts and fair values of these financial instruments were as follows:
(dollars in millions)
The carrying amounts of other short-term financial instruments approximates their fair value due to their short-term nature.
5.LOSS AND LOSS ADJUSTMENT EXPENSE RESERVES
The following provides a reconciliation of the beginning and ending reserve balances for loss and LAE, net of reinsurance:
(dollars in millions)
Reinsurance recoverable on unpaid losses (48.0) (43.8) (76.4)
Net incurred loss and LAE related to:
Net paid loss and LAE related to:
Plus reinsurance recoverable on unpaid losses 25.4 48.0 43.8
The decrease to incurred losses for prior accident years in 2025 of $29.4 million was primarily driven by lower-than-expected reported losses and LAE from accident year 2024 related to liability and physical damage coverages.
The decrease to incurred losses for prior accident years in 2024 of $19.4 million was primarily driven by lower-than-expected reported losses and LAE from accident year 2023 related to liability and physical damage coverages.
The decrease to incurred losses for prior accident years in 2023 of $7.0 million was primarily driven by lower-than-expected reported losses from accident year 2022 related to liability and physical damage coverages.
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The following table shows incurred and paid losses and allocated loss adjustment expenses, or ALAE, development by accident year for private passenger auto and renters in aggregate, cumulative claim frequency is defined as the number of reported claims at the claim level which includes reported claims that do not result in a liability:
Incurred Losses and ALAE—Net of Reinsurance
(dollars in millions)
Cumulative Paid Losses and ALAE—Net of Reinsurance
(dollars in millions)
All outstanding liabilities before 2021—net of reinsurance 2.2
Loss and ALAE reserves—net of reinsurance $ 424.9
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(1) Reported by claim event.
The following table sets forth the reconciliation of the claims development tables to the balance sheet losses and ALAE reserves, with separate disclosure of unallocated LAE, or ULAE, and reinsurance recoverable on unpaid losses for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024:
(dollars in millions)
Loss and ALAE reserves—net of reinsurance $ 424.9 $ 332.4
ULAE reserves—net of reinsurance 33.3 32.8
Reinsurance recoverables on unpaid losses 25.4 48.0
Total loss and LAE reserves—gross of reinsurance $ 483.6 $ 413.2
The following table sets forth the historical average annual percentage payout of incurred losses and ALAE (claims duration), net of reinsurance, as of December 31, 2025: