MNSB US Equity☆

Item7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The purpose of this discussion is to focus on significant changes in the financial condition and results of operations of the Company during the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022. The following discussion supplements and provides information about the major components of the results of operations, financial condition, liquidity and capital resources of the Company. This discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with the accompanying consolidated financial statements.

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Forward-Looking Statements

This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains certain forward-looking statements and information relating to the Company within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 that are based on the beliefs of management as well as assumptions made by and information currently available to management. Forward-looking statements can be identified by the fact that they do not relate strictly to historical or current facts. They often include words like “believe,” “expect,” “anticipate,” “estimate,” and “intend” or future or conditional verbs such as “will,” “should,” “could,” or “may” and similar expressions or the negative thereof. Important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those in the forward–looking statements included herein include, but are not limited to:

• adverse changes in the securities markets;

• our ability to successfully integrate acquired entities;

• changes in consumer spending, borrowing and savings habits;

• changes in accounting policies and practices;

• changes in our organization, compensation and benefit plans;

• our ability to attract and retain key employees;

• adequacy of our allowance for credit losses;

• deterioration of our asset quality;

• cyber threats, attacks or events

• reliance on third parties for key services

• liquidity, interest rate and operational risks associated with our business;

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Should one or more of these risks or uncertainties materialize or should underlying assumptions prove incorrect, actual results may vary materially from those described herein. We caution readers not to place undue reliance on forward-looking statements. The Company disclaims any obligation to revise or update any forward-looking statements contained in this Form 10-K to reflect future events or developments. The discussion of the critical accounting policies and analysis set forth below is intended to supplement and highlight information contained in the accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements and the selected financial data presented elsewhere in this Form 10-K.

Critical Accounting Policies

The accounting and financial reporting policies of the Company conform to accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America and to general practices within the banking industry. Accordingly, the financial statements require certain estimates, judgments, and assumptions, which are believed to be reasonable, based upon the information available. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of income and expenses during the periods presented. Critical accounting policies comprise those that management believes are the most critical to aid in fully understanding and evaluating our reported financial results. These policies require numerous estimates or economic assumptions that may prove inaccurate or may be subject to variations which may significantly affect our reported results and financial condition for the current period or in future periods.

The accounting principles followed by the Company and the methods of applying these principles conform with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America and with general practices within the banking industry. The Company’s critical accounting policies relate to (1) the allowance for credit losses, (2) fair value of financial instruments, and (3) derivative financial instruments. These critical accounting policies require the use of estimates, assumptions and judgments which are based on information available as of the date of the financial statements. Accordingly, as this information changes, future financial statements could reflect the use of different estimates, assumptions and judgments. Certain determinations inherently have a greater reliance on the use of estimates, assumptions and judgments and, as such, have a greater possibility of producing results that could be materially different than originally reported.

Allowance for Credit Losses: On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted ASU 2016-13 Financial Instruments – Credit Losses (Topic 326): Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments (ASC 326). This standard replaced the incurred loss methodology with an expected loss methodology that is referred to as the current expected credit loss (“CECL”) methodology. CECL requires an estimate of credit losses for the remaining estimated life of the financial asset using historical experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts and generally applies to financial assets measured at amortized cost, including loan receivables and held-to-maturity debt securities, and some off-balance sheet credit exposures such as unfunded commitments to extend credit. Financial assets measured at amortized cost will be presented at the net amount expected to be collected by using an allowance for credit losses. See Note 1. Organization, Basis of Presentation, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, and Impact of Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements for a more detailed description of methodology and impact of adoption.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments: A portion of the Company’s assets and liabilities is carried at fair value, with changes in fair value recorded either in earnings or accumulated other comprehensive income (loss). These include investment securities available for sale and interest rate loan swaps on qualifying commercial loans. Periodically, the estimation of fair value also affects investment securities held to maturity when it is determined that the Company should record an allowance for credit losses on a security. Fair value determination is also relevant for certain other assets such as other real estate owned, which is recorded at the lower of the recorded balance or fair value, less estimated costs to sell. The determination of fair value also impacts certain other assets that are periodically evaluated for impairment using fair value estimates, including individually evaluated loans.

Fair value is generally based upon quoted market prices, when available. If such quoted market prices are not available, fair value is based upon internally developed models that primarily use observable market-based parameters as inputs. Valuation adjustments may be made to ensure that financial instruments are recorded at fair value. These adjustments may include amounts to reflect counterparty credit quality and the Company’s creditworthiness, among other things, as well as other unobservable parameters. Any such valuation adjustments are applied consistently over time. While management believes the Company’s valuation methodologies are appropriate and consistent with other market participants, the use of different methodologies or assumptions to determine the fair value of certain financial instruments could result in a different estimate of fair value at the reporting date.

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See Note 20, Fair Value Presentation, in Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for a detailed discussion of determining fair value, including pricing validation processes.

Derivative Financial Instruments: The Bank recognizes derivative financial instruments at fair value as either other assets or other liabilities in the consolidated statement of financial condition. The Bank’s derivative financial instruments include interest rate swaps with certain qualifying commercial loan customers and dealer counterparties. Because the interest rate swaps with loan customers and dealer counterparties are not designated as hedging instruments, adjustments to reflect unrealized gains and losses resulting from changes in fair value of these instruments are reported as non-interest income or non-interest expense, as applicable. The Bank’s interest rate swaps with loan customers and dealer counterparties are described more fully in Note 19 in the December 31, 2023, Consolidated Financial Statements.

Selected Financial Data

The following table sets forth summarized historical consolidated financial information for each of the periods indicated. This information should be read together with the accompanying consolidated financial statements included in this Form 10-K. The historical information indicated as of and for the years ended December 31, 2023,and 2022 has been derived from the Company's audited consolidated financial statements for the years ended December 31, 2023, and 2022. Historical results set forth below and elsewhere in this Form 10-K are not necessarily indicative of future performance

At December 31,

(In thousands)

Selected Financial Condition Data:

Computer software, net of amortization 14,657 9,149

Federal funds purchased 15,000 —

Allowance for credit losses on off-balance sheet credit exposure 1,009 —

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For the year ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Selected Operating Data:

Net interest income after provision for credit losses 74,305 67,611

Less: Preferred stock dividends 2,156 2,156

Net income available to common shareholders $ 24,429 $ 24,518

Basic and diluted earnings per common share $ 3.25 $ 3.26

At or For the Years Ended December 31,

Performance Ratios:

Return on average assets 1.38 % 1.53 %

Interest rate spread 2.95 % 3.66 %

Net interest margin (1) 4.08 % 4.19 %

Non-interest expense to average assets 2.34 % 2.24 %

Per share Data and Shares Outstanding

Earnings per common share (basic and diluted) $ 3.25 $ 3.26

Book value per common share $ 25.81 $ 22.98

Dividends per common share $ 0.40 $ 0.25

Tangible book value per common share $ 23.86 $ 21.75

Market value per common share $ 24.81 $ 27.49

Capital Ratios (Bank)

Common equity tier 1(CET1) capital to risk-weighted assets 16.22 % 15.47 %

Total risk-based capital to risk-weighted assets 17.18 % 16.27 %

Tier 1 capital to risk-weighted assets 16.22 % 15.47 %

Tier 1 capital to average assets 14.66 % 15.05 %

Asset Quality Ratios

Net charge-offs to average outstanding loans during the period 0.03 % 0.00 %

Non-performing loans as a percentage of total loans 0.06 % 0.00 %

Non-performing assets as a percentage of total assets 0.05 % 0.00 %

Other Data:

Common equity / total assets 9.54 % 8.88 %

Tangible equity / tangible assets 10.24 % 9.87 %

Average tangible equity to average tangible assets 10.31 % 10.66 %

Number of offices 6 6

Number of full-time equivalent employees 186 168

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Analysis of Results of Operations for the Years Ended December 31, 2023 and 2022

Net Income

The following table sets forth the principal components of net income for the periods indicated.

For the Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Net income available to common shareholders $ 24,429 $ 24,518 -0.36 %

Net income for the year ended December 31, 2023, was $26.6 million, a decrease of $0.1 million, or 0.3% compared to $26.7 million earned during the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease in net income was due to increases in interest expense of $34.3 million and an increase of non-interest expenses of $6.1 million compared to the same period in the prior year. Despite increases in interest expense, net interest income increased $5.9 million, primarily driven by increased volume of loans and increase in interest rates.

Net Interest Income and Net Interest Margin

Net interest income is the principal component of the Company’s income stream and represents the difference, or spread, between interest and fee income generated from earning assets and the interest expense paid on deposits and borrowed funds. Net interest margin, stated as a percentage, is the yield obtained by dividing the difference between interest income generated on earning assets and the interest expense paid on all funding sources by average earning assets. Fluctuations in interest rates as well as changes in the volume and mix of earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities can impact net interest income and net interest margin.

Net interest income before provision for or recovery of credit losses totaled $75.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to $70.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase in net interest income was driven by an increase in loan production and increase in interest rates on variable rate credits and loans that repriced during the year ended December 31, 2023.

The net interest margin was 4.08% for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to 4.19% for the year ended December 31, 2022, on a fully tax equivalent basis. The decrease in net interest margin primarily resulted from an increase of interest expense on our interest bearing liabilities that outpaced the increase in interest income. The primary drivers of increased interest expense came from money market and time deposits. The increase in the federal funds target rate impacted our maturing wholesale deposits that had to reprice in a higher interest rate environment, which increased margin pressure on our loan portfolio and other interest earning assets. Management made efforts to replace these deposits with callable wholesale deposits, allowing more optionality for future rate movements.

The yield for the year ended December 31, 2023 for the loan portfolio was 7.00% compared to 5.47% for the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase primarily reflects the maturity of lower yielding loans and higher yields on new and variable rate loans based on higher interest rates during the year. The Federal Reserve increased its targeted benchmark interest rate to a range of 525 - 550 basis points in 2023, which impacted yields obtained on new loans throughout the year.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, the yield on the taxable investment securities portfolio was 2.67% compared to 2.20% for the year ended December 31, 2022. For the year ended December 31, 2023, the yield on the tax-exempt investment securities portfolio was 3.57% compared to 3.48% for the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase in both categories was primarily due to rates on variable securities increasing with the current rate environment and lower yields on investment securities maturing during the period.

The rate paid on interest bearing deposits increased to 3.61% during the year ended December 31, 2023, from 1.14% during the year ended December 31, 2022. This increase was a result of higher rates paid on all outstanding deposits in conjunction with the increasing rate environment throughout the year.

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The rate paid on FHLB borrowings and federal funds purchased for the year ended December 31, 2023 was 4.90% and 5.36%, respectively, compared to the prior year of 1.45% for FHLB borrowings and no interest paid on federal funds purchased.

The following table sets forth the major components of net interest income and the related yields and rates for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022.

Average Balances, Net Interest Income, Yields Earned and Rates Paid

The following table shows for the periods indicated the total dollar amount of interest from average interest-earning assets and the resulting yields, as well as the interest expense on average interest-bearing liabilities, expressed both in dollars and rates, and the net interest margin. All average balances are based on daily balances.

For the Year Ended December 31,

(Dollars in thousands)

Interest-earning assets:

Investment securities

Interest-bearing liabilities:

Non-interest-bearing liabilities:

Interest rate spread (2) 2.95 % 3.66 %

Net interest margin (4) 4.08 % 4.19 %

(1) Includes loans classified as non-accrual.

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Rate/ Volume Analysis

The following table presents the effects of changing rates and volumes on net interest income for the periods indicated. The rate column shows the effects attributable to changes in rate (changes in rate multiplied by prior volume). The volume column shows the effects attributable to changes in volume (changes in volume multiplied by prior rate). The net column represents the sum of the prior columns. For purposes of this table, changes attributable to both rate and volume, which cannot be segregated, have been allocated proportionately, based on the changes due to rate and the changes due to volume.

For the Twelve Months Ended

Increase (Decrease) Due to Total Increase

Volume Rate (Decrease)

(In thousands)

Interest-earning assets:

Federal funds and interest-bearing deposits (402 ) 3,128 2,726

Interest-bearing liabilities:

Interest-bearing demand deposits $ (18 ) $ 1,309 $ 1,291

Federal funds purchased 299 — 299

Federal Home Loan Bank advances 15 862 877

Change in net interest income $ 5,990 $ (50 ) $ 5,940

Provision for Credit Losses

We establish a provision for credit losses, which is charged to operations, in order to maintain the allowance for credit losses at a level we consider necessary to absorb expected credit losses that are both probable and reasonably estimated at the balance sheet date. In determining the level of the allowance for credit and off-balance sheet losses, we consider past and current loss experience, evaluations of real estate collateral, current and future economic conditions, volume and type of lending, adverse situations that may affect a borrower’s ability to repay a loan and the levels of non-performing loans. The amount of the allowance is based on estimates, and actual losses may vary from such estimates as more information becomes available or economic conditions change.

This evaluation is inherently subjective, as it requires estimates that are susceptible to significant revision as circumstances change as more information becomes available. The allowance for credit losses on loans is assessed on a monthly basis and provisions are made for credit losses on loans as required in order to maintain the allowance. The allowance for off-balance sheet credit is assessed quarterly and provisions are made to maintain the allowance.

The provision for credit losses on loans decreased to a loan loss provision of $1.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the prior year which ended at loan loss provision of $2.4 million. The provision for credit losses on off-balance sheet exposure was a net recovery of $301 from the original establishment of $1.3 million upon the adoption of CECL. The decrease in provision for credit losses on loans was primarily driven by loan growth as well as increasing qualitative factors within our model assumptions for increased levels of past dues and potential weaknesses in underlying collateral for certain asset classes. The recovery of credit losses for off-balance sheet exposure was driven by fluctuations in our revolving credit line utilization rates as of December 31, 2023. Loan originations decreased $152.3 million, which totaled $599.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to loan originations of $447.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. Non-performing loans were $21,000 at December 31, 2022 and $1.0 million at December 31, 2023.

On September 22, 2022, the Company completed the sale of a loan note for a customer that had stopped making payments and declared bankruptcy. The Company incurred a loss of $211,000 on this transaction that was properly accounted for in its Statement of Income as a loss on the sale of a loan. This credit had previously identified weaknesses and deemed to be of substandard quality with an appropriate reserve allocation. We determined that the best course of action was to sell the note at a discount to an interested party. Had the loan sale not occurred, the Company would have recorded a specific allocation to the provision for loan losses and proceeded with an orderly liquidation of collateral.

During the year ended December 31, 2023, substandard loans increased $11.7 million for a balance of $21.2 million. During the year ended December 31, 2023, special mention loans increased $19.0 million to $19.0 million. During the year ended December 31, 2023, watch list loans increased $33.7 million to $58.7 million. Management does not believe any significant loss exposure currently exists in these loans. During the year ended December 31, 2023, there was $468,000 in charge-offs recorded and recoveries of $22,000 were received. During the year ended December 31, 2022, there were no charge-offs recorded and recoveries received of $19,000.

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Non-Interest Income

Our primary sources of non-interest income are service charges on deposit accounts, such as interchange fees and statement fees, income earned on bank owned life insurance, fees earned from executing interest rate swaps on commercial loans, and gains realized on the sale of the guaranteed portion of Small Business Administration (“SBA”) loans.

The following table presents, for the periods indicated, the major categories of non-interest income:

For the Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Non-interest income

Net gain on called held-to-maturity securities — 4 -100.00 %

Net gain (loss) on sale of loans — (168 ) -100.00 %

Non-interest income decreased $1.2 million, or 24.7%, to $3.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 from $4.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease in non-interest income was primarily due to a decrease in swap fee income and mortgage origination fees decreasing $379,000 for the year ended December 31, 2023. The Company did not recognize any fees on interest rate swaps for commercial loans for the year ended December 31, 2023 down from $619,000 for the year ended December 31, 2022. The Company also recognized $251,000 in planned operating losses in other fee income related to two New Market Tax Credit investments during the year ended December 31, 2023. Bank owned life insurance income increased $61,000 for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, due to the rising rate environment throughout 2023. The deposit service fees decreased $271,000 for the year ended December 31, 2023, as compared to the same period in 2022, due to a decrease in customer activity.

Non-Interest Expense

Generally, non-interest expense is composed of all employee expenses and costs associated with operating our facilities, obtaining and retaining customer relationships and providing bank services. The largest component of non-interest expense is salaries and employee benefits. Non-interest expense also includes operational expenses, such as occupancy and equipment expenses, professional fees, advertising expenses and other general and administrative expenses, including FDIC assessments, communications, travel, meals, training, supplies and postage. The following table presents, for the periods indicated, the major categories of non-interest expense:

For the Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Non-interest expense

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Non-interest expense increased $6.1 million or 15.5% to $45.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 from $39.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2022 primarily as a result of increases in salary and employee benefits of $4.5 million, FDIC insurance of $494,000 and Franchise tax of $405,000. Salaries and employee benefits expense increased by $4.5 million to $28.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 from $23.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2022 primarily as a result of increasing our personnel team members by 18 employees. FDIC insurance increased $494,000, or 77.6%, to $1.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 from $637,000 for the year ended December 31, 2022. While the Company was not included in the special assessment directly related to four bank failures, the FDIC is increasing the reserve ratio within its insurance fund. Franchise tax expense increased $405,000, or 28.3%, to $1.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, due to consistent growth of the Company's capital and earnings profile. Many of the non-interest expense categories remained consistent for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the year ended December 31, 2022 as management continues to exercise judicious expense controls.

Income Tax Expense

Income tax expense decreased $475,000, or 7.1%, to $6.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 from $6.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease in federal income tax expense for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the same period a year earlier was driven by continued investments in projects that provide tax credit incentives and further the mission of our community development entity. The Company is able to apply and claim a research and development tax credit for its associated work in developing a software platform. The Company has invested in projects that generate tax credits through the Low Income Housing Tax Credits ("LIHTC") program as well as NMTC projects. As a result of tax regulation, the Company has included assessments in income tax expense for state tax liabilities during 2023. For the year ended December 31, 2023, the Bank had an effective tax rate of 19.0%, compared to effective federal tax rate of 20.1% for the year ended December 31, 2022.

Avenu, a division of MainStreet Bank

Analysis of Results of Operations for the Year Ended December 31, 2023

Net Income

The following table sets forth the principal components of net income (loss) for the Avenu division of MainStreet Bank for the periods indicated. All amounts set forth are included in the Results of Operations for the Year Ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 for MainStreet Bancshares, Inc. unless indicated otherwise.

For the Year Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Income Statement

Net income (loss) before taxes $ 51 (433 ) -111.78 %

For the year ended December 31, 2023, the Avenu division recorded net income of $51,000. As the Company develops the software and ramps up the resources needed to operate a new division, elevated levels of non-interest expenses are anticipated. The Avenu division held $45.0 million in average non-interest bearing deposits which provides tremendous value to the Company, while simultaneously establishing a new division. Avenu is developing a comprehensive hosted BaaS software platform that will provide Fintechs with a subledger integrated within a regulatory compliant framework, easily connectable application programming interfaces ("APIs"), and access to banking payment networks. The Avenu team will deploy the platform in 2024.

Comparison of Statements of Financial Condition at December 31, 2023 and at December 31, 2022

Total Assets

Total assets increased $109.7 million, or 5.7%, to $2.0 billion at December 31, 2023 from $1.9 billion at December 31, 2022. The increase was primarily the result of increases of $127.5 million in gross loans receivable, $5.5 million in computer software, and $2.8 million in accrued interest receivables. These increases were offset by a decrease in available-for-sale securities of $2.7 million and a decrease of $5.0 in other assets, which was primarily impacted by fluctuations in market value of our executed loan swaps.

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Investment Securities

We use our securities portfolio to provide a source of liquidity, provide an appropriate return on funds invested, manage interest rate risk, meet collateral requirements, assist in achieving Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) objectives, and meet regulatory capital and liquidity requirements. Our investment policy is established and reviewed annually by the Board of Directors. We are permitted under federal law to invest in various types of liquid assets, including United States Government obligations, securities of various federal agencies and of state and municipal governments, mortgage-backed securities, time deposits of federally insured institutions, subordinated debt of other financial institutions, equity securities, certain bankers’ acceptances and federal funds.

Our investment objectives are to maintain high asset quality, to provide and maintain liquidity, to establish an acceptable level of interest rate and credit risk, to provide an alternate source of low-risk investments when demand for loans is weak and to generate a favorable return. The Board of Directors has the overall responsibility for the investment portfolio, including approval of our investment policy. The Board of Directors is also responsible for implementation of the investment policy and monitoring investment performance. The Board of Directors reviews the status of the investment portfolio on a quarterly basis, or more frequently if warranted.

Generally accepted accounting principles require that, at the time of purchase, we designate a security as held to maturity, available-for-sale, or trading, depending on our ability and intent to hold such security. Debt securities available for sale are reported at fair value, while debt securities held to maturity are reported at amortized cost. We do not maintain a trading portfolio. Establishing a trading portfolio would require specific authorization by the Board of Directors.

The total investment securities portfolio, including both investment securities available for sale and investment securities held to maturity, was $77.2 million at December 31, 2023, a decrease of $3.1 million compared with December 31, 2022. At December 31, 2023, the investment securities portfolio includes $59.9 million of investment securities available for sale and $17.3 million of investment securities held to maturity compared to $62.6 million of investment securities available for sale and $17.6 million of investment securities held to maturity at December 31, 2022.

The Company did not sell any securities within the investment portfolio for the year ended December 31, 2023 or 2022.

For available-for-sale securities, management evaluates all investments in an unrealized loss position on a quarterly basis, and more frequently when economic or market conditions warrant such evaluation. If the Company has the intent to sell the security, or it is more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell the security, the security is written down to fair value, and the entire loss is recorded in earnings.

Portfolio Maturities and Yields. The composition and maturities of the investment securities portfolio at December 31, 2023, are summarized in the following table. Maturities are based on the final contractual payment date, and do not reflect the effect of scheduled principal repayments, prepayments, or early redemptions that may occur. Adjustable-rate mortgage-backed securities are included in the period in which interest rates are next scheduled to adjust. The Company does invest in both taxable and non-taxable municipal securities. No material changes occurred in the non-taxable security portfolio for the year ended December 31, 2023.

More than One Year More than Five Years More than

One Year or Less through Five Years through Ten Years Ten Years Total

Weighted Weighted Weighted Weighted Weighted

Cost Yield (1) Cost Yield (1) Cost Yield (1) Cost Yield (1) Cost Value Yield (1)

(Dollars in thousands)

Securities available for sale:

Municipal Securities

Securities held to maturity:

Municipal Securities

Weighted average yield is calculated as the tax-equivalent yield on a pro rata basis for each security based on its relative amortized cost.

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Loan Portfolio

Our primary source of income is derived from interest earned on loans. Our loan portfolio consists of loans secured by real estate as well as commercial business loans and consumer loans, substantially all of which are secured by corresponding deposits at the Bank. Our loan customers primarily consist of small- to medium-sized businesses, professionals, real estate investors, small residential builders and individuals. Our owner occupied and investment commercial real estate loans, residential construction loans and commercial business loans provide us with higher risk-adjusted returns, shorter maturities and more sensitivity to interest rate fluctuations, and are complemented by our relatively lower risk residential real estate loans to individuals. Our lending activities are principally directed to our market area consisting of the Washington, D.C. and Northern Virginia metropolitan areas.

Loan Portfolio Maturities and Yields.The following table summarizes the scheduled repayments of our loan portfolio at December 31, 2023. Demand loans, having no stated repayment schedule or maturity, and overdraft loans are reported as being due in one year or less. Maturities are based on the final contractual payment date and do not reflect the impact of prepayments and scheduled principal amortization.

Single-Family Multi-Family Farmland Owner Occupied Non-owner Occupied

(In thousands)

Amounts due in:

Amounts due in: (In thousands)

The following table sets forth our fixed and adjustable-rate loans at December 31, 2023, that are contractually due after December 31, 2023.

Fixed Adjustable

Rates Rates Total

(In thousands)

Residential real estate:

Commercial real estate:

Commercial – non-real estate:

Consumer – non-real estate:

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The following table shows our loan originations, participations, purchases, sales and repayment activities for the periods indicated.

Years Ended December 31,

(In thousands)

Loans originated:

Real estate loans:

Residential real estate:

Farmland — —

Commercial real estate:

Commercial – non-real estate:

Consumer – non-real estate:

Loan principal repayments:

Loans, net of unearned income, totaled $1.7 billion at December 31, 2023, an increase of $127.5 million from December 31, 2022. The increase in total loans was primarily driven by growth in the overall loan portfolio, with increases in multifamily residential real estate, as well as in construction and land development credits.

A significant portion of the loan portfolio consists of commercial, construction and commercial real estate loans, primarily made in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area and secured by real estate or other collateral in that market. Although these loans are made to a diversified pool of unrelated borrowers across numerous businesses, adverse developments in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan real estate market could have an adverse impact on this portfolio of loans and the Company’s income and financial position. While our basic market area is the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, the Bank has made loans outside that market area where the applicant is an existing customer, and the nature and quality of such loans was consistent with the Company's lending policies.

The federal banking Agencies issued guidance in 2006 which addresses institutions’ with increased concentrations of commercial real estate (CRE) loans. The guidance does not establish specific CRE lending limits; rather, it promotes sound risk management practices and appropriate levels of capital that will enable institutions to continue to pursue CRE lending in a safe and sound manner. In developing this guidance, the Agencies recognized that different types of CRE lending present different levels of risk, and that consideration should be given to the lower risk profiles and historically superior performance of certain types of CRE, such as well-structured multifamily housing finance, when compared to others, such as speculative office space construction. As discussed under “CRE Concentration Assessments,” institutions are encouraged to segment their CRE portfolios to acknowledge these distinctions for risk management purposes. The guidance focuses on those CRE loans for which the cash flow from the real estate is the primary source of repayment rather than loans to a borrower for which real estate collateral is taken as a secondary source of repayment or through an abundance of caution. Thus, for the purposes of the guidance, CRE loans include those loans with risk profiles sensitive to the condition of the general CRE market (for example, market demand, changes in capitalization rates, vacancy rates, or rents). CRE loans are land development and construction loans (including 1- to 4-family residential and commercial construction loans) and other land loans. CRE loans also include loans secured by multifamily property, and nonfarm nonresidential property where the primary source of repayment is derived from rental income associated with the property (that is, loans for which 50 percent or more of the source of repayment comes from third party, nonaffiliated, rental income) or the proceeds of the sale, refinancing, or permanent financing of the property. Excluded from the scope of this Guidance are loans secured by nonfarm nonresidential properties where the primary source of repayment is the cash flow from the ongoing operations and activities conducted by the party, or affiliate of the party, who owns the property.

As part of their ongoing supervisory monitoring processes, the Agencies use certain criteria to identify institutions that are potentially exposed to significant CRE concentration risk. An institution that has experienced rapid growth in CRE lending, has notable exposure to a specific type of CRE, or is approaching or exceeds the following supervisory criteria may be identified for further supervisory analysis of the level and nature of its CRE concentration risk:

The Agencies use the criteria as a preliminary step to identify institutions that may have CRE concentration risk. Because regulatory reports capture a broad range of CRE loans with varying risk characteristics, the supervisory monitoring criteria do not constitute limits on an institution’s lending activity but rather serve as high-level indicators to identify institutions potentially exposed to CRE concentration risk.

The Company holds a concentration in commercial real estate loans. As of December 31, 2023, construction, land development and other land loans represented 137.7% of consolidated risk-based capital. Total commercial real estate loans as defined by the Agency guidance represented 372.5% of consolidated risk-based capital. During the prior 36 months, the Company has experienced an increase in its commercial real estate portfolio by 55%.

The management team has extensive experience in underwriting commercial real estate loans and has implemented and continues to maintain heightened risk management procedures and strong underwriting criteria with respect to its commercial real estate portfolio. The Board of Directors has established internal maximum limits on CRE as an asset class overall as well as sub limits within CRE by property class, to better manage and control the exposure to property classes during periods of changing economic conditions. The Board of Directors also has minimum targets for regulatory capital ratios that are in excess of well capitalized ratios.

Our risk management process begins with a robust underwriting program. The underwriting and risk rating of all loans is completed by an underwriting team that is independent of the originating lender(s). The underwriting analysis of commercial real estate loans includes pre-origination stress testing utilizing the portfolio stress testing methods to fully understand the potential exposure before we originate the credit. Once originated, each loan receives ongoing quarterly stress tests to evaluate the risk profile over the life of the credit.

We stress test earning assets on a quarterly basis and measure the results against the Bank's risk-based capital. For commercial loans, residential real estate loans, owner-occupied commercial real estate loans and consumer installment loans, we multiply the total outstanding amount for each loan category by our highest quarter historical loss for that category as a surrogate in order to calculate a stressed loss.

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For our non-owner occupied commercial real estate loans, we use three separate methodologies in our stress test. If a property fails more than one of the three tests, we extend the test with the highest exposure value and add an additional 10% for selling costs.

• An immediate and sustained 3.0% increase in interest rates,

• An immediate and sustained 5.0% increase in vacancy rates, and

We stress test the construction lending portfolio by applying exponential discounting (using a "k factor" of 2) to each project based upon its percentage of completion. The project is stressed using the as-is and as-complete appraised values and assumes 10% selling costs.

For all other loans, we utilize the Bank's historic loss rates or if not available, the average loss rates of UBPR Group 4 banks, for bank owned life insurance we utilize default rates from S&P Global ratings, and for securities we obtain an independent fair market value and if it is less than the book value, we subtract the fair market value from the book value to determine the stress loss. For The following table shows the Company's earning assets and the results of the stress test performed for the periods indicated.

Outstanding Balance Stress Test Results (1) Stressed Loss Percent

(Dollars in thousands)

Earning Asset Component

Swap Portfolio — — —

(1) Net tax effective loss at the statutory rate of 21%

Outstanding Balance Stress Test Results (1) Stressed Loss Percent

(Dollars in thousands)

Earning Asset Component (2)

(1) Net tax effective loss at the statutory rate of 21%

(2) The Company began stressing all earning assets beginning March 31, 2023.

The total estimated stress test loss is deducted from capital and we recalculate the capital ratios. As shown in the tables below, as of December 31,

2023, and

2022 the post-stress capital ratios well exceed our Board target ratios as well as Agency minimums (with buffer).

The Company employs an external loan review firm to conduct ongoing reviews of the loan portfolio. During the year ended December 31, 2023, the independent external loan review firm reviewed approximately 55% of the entire portfolio by outstanding dollar balance. The external review did not identify any material underwriting or ongoing portfolio management concerns.

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The following two tables break down the December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022 non-owner occupied CRE portfolio balances by showing the current balance in each sub-category and location. The tables also display very favorable weighted average interest rates and weighted average loan-to-values for both periods. The weighted average occupancy percentages are also broadly favorable for both periods.

(Dollars in thousands)

DC MD VA Other Total

Office:

Construction and Land Development

(2) Non-owner occupied includes multifamily call code 1D

(Dollars in thousands)

DC MD VA Other Total

Office:

Construction and Land Development

Office:

(2) Non-owner occupied includes multifamily call code 1D

The Company also underwrites and originates owner-occupied commercial real estate loans. These loans are typically term loans made to support properties that rely upon the operations of the business occupying the property for repayment. The Agencies specifically excluded owner-occupied commercial real estate from their concentration guidance, as the primary source of repayment is the cash flow from the ongoing operations and activities conducted by the party, or affiliate of the party, who owns the property.

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The following two tables depict a well-diversified portfolio of owner-occupied commercial real estate as of December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022. The properties are distributed nicely among the Company's footprint. This loan segment continues to perform very well and is supported by strong loan-to-values (LTVs). The following table sets forth our owner-occupied CRE portfolio by the business industry groups that occupy the properties for the periods indicated.

(Dollars in thousands)

DC MD VA Other Total

(Dollars in thousands)

DC MD VA Other Total

The risk profile of real estate properties within our market can vary depending upon location. Therefore, we have disaggregated our stress testing of construction projects further by segmenting the loans into two groupings, those inside a 15-mile radius of Washington, D.C. and those outside that radius. For example, during the 2009 recession, the peak-to-trough drop in property values inside the beltway was less than 10% (CoreLogic, 2019). The Board determined that loans made inside a 15-mile radius of Washington, D.C. carry less geographic risk than those made outside of that radius.

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The graphic below is a geopoint map that depicts all construction loans, non-owner occupied CRE loans, and owner-occupied CRE loans, with a majority of all loan types concentrated within a 15-mile radius of Washington, D.C.

Asset Quality

The Company’s asset quality remained strong during the year ended December 31, 2023. Nonperforming assets, which includes nonaccrual loans, accruing loans 90 days past due, and other real estate owned totaled $1,004,000 at December 31, 2023, and $21,000 at December 31, 2022.

A loan’s past due status is based on the contractual due date of the most delinquent payment due. All loans which are 30 or more days past due at the end of the month are reported to the Board of Directors. Commercial loans are generally placed on nonaccrual status when the collection of principal or interest is 90 days or more past due, or earlier, if collection is uncertain based on an evaluation of the net realizable value of the collateral and the financial strength of the borrower. Consumer loans are generally placed on nonaccrual status when the collection of principal or interest is 120 days or more past due, or earlier, if collection is uncertain based on an evaluation of the net realizable value of the collateral and the financial strength of the borrower. Loans greater than 90 days past due may remain on accrual status if management determines it has adequate collateral to cover the principal and interest. For those loans that are carried on nonaccrual status, payments are first applied to principal outstanding. A loan may be returned to accrual status if the borrower has demonstrated a sustained period of repayment performance in accordance with the contractual terms of the loan and there is reasonable assurance the borrower will continue to make payments as agreed.

The Company may identify loans for potential restructure primarily through direct communication with the borrower and evaluation of the borrower’s financial statements, revenue projections, tax returns, and credit reports. Even if the borrower is not presently in default, management will consider the likelihood that cash flow shortages, adverse economic conditions and negative trends may result in a payment default in the near future.

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As a percentage of total assets, nonperforming assets were 0.05% at December 31, 2023, compared with 0.00% at December 31, 2022. As of December 31, 2023, the Company had $1.0 million in loans on nonaccrual status.

See Note 1, Organization, Basis of Presentation, and Impact of Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements and Note 5, Allowance for Credit Losses, in Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for further information on the Company’s credit grade categories, which are derived from standard regulatory rating definitions.

The following table summarizes asset quality information at December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022.

December 31, December 31,

(Dollars in thousands)

Non-accrual loans:

Residential real estate

Single family $ 851 $ —

Commercial and industrial 149 —

Total non-accrual loans 1,000 —

Loans accruing past 90 days:

Commercial and industrial — 15

Consumer non real estate - secured 4 6

Total non-performing loans 1,004 21

Total non-performing assets $ 1,004 $ 21

Ratios:

Total non-performing loans to gross loans receivable 0.06 % 0.00 %

Total non-performing loans to total assets 0.05 % 0.00 %

Total non-accrual loans to gross loans receivable 0.05 % 0.00 %

Interest income that would have been recorded for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 had non-accruing loans been current according to their original terms was $133,092 and $0, respectively.

Occasionally, the Company modifies loans by providing principal forgiveness on certain of its real estate loans. When principal forgiveness is provided, the amortized cost basis of the asset is written off against the allowance for credit losses. The amount of the principal forgiveness is deemed to be uncollectible; therefore, that portion of the loan is written off, resulting in a reduction of the amortized cost basis and a corresponding adjustment to the allowance for credit losses.

In some cases, the Company will modify a certain loan by providing multiple types of concessions. Typically, one type of concession, such as a term extension, is granted initially. If the borrower continues to experience financial difficulty, another concession, such as principal forgiveness, may be granted.

The Company further describes loans that were modified during the year ended December 31, 2023 in Note 5 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

Analysis and Determination of the Allowance for Credit Loss on Loans.The allowance for credit losses on loans is maintained at a level which, in management’s judgment, is adequate to absorb probable and estimable future credit losses in the loan portfolio. The amount of the allowance is based on management’s evaluation of the collectability of the loan portfolio, including the nature of the portfolio, credit concentrations, trends in historical loss experience, specific individually evaluated loans, and current and future economic conditions. Allowances for individually evaluated loans are generally determined based on collateral values. Because of uncertainties associated with regional economic conditions, collateral values, and future cash flows on individually evaluated loans, it is reasonably possible that management’s estimate of probable credit losses inherent in the loan portfolio and the related allowance may change materially in the near-term. The allowance is increased by a provision for credit losses on loans which is charged to expense and reduced by full and partial charge-offs, net of recoveries. Changes in the allowance relating to individually evaluated loans are charged or credited to the provision for credit losses on loans. Management’s periodic evaluation of the adequacy of the allowance is based on various factors, including, but not limited to, management’s ongoing review and grading of loans, facts and issues related to specific loans, historical loan losses on loan pools, the fair value of the underlying collateral, current and future economic conditions and other qualitative and quantitative factors which could affect potential credit losses. An integral part of their examination process, the Federal Reserve Board will periodically review our allowance for credit losses, and as a result of such reviews, we may have to adjust our allowance for credit losses.

On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted ASU 2016-13 Financial Instruments - Credit Losses (Topic 326): Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments, as amended, which replaces the incurred loss methodology with an expected loss methodology that is referred to as the current expected credit loss (CECL) methodology. The measurement of expected credit losses under the CECL methodology is applicable to financial assets measured at amortized cost, including loan receivables and held-to-maturity debt securities. It also applies to off-balance sheet credit exposures not accounted for as insurance (loan commitments, standby letters of credit, financial guarantees, and other similar instruments) and net investments in leases recognized by the lessor in accordance with Topic 842 on leases. In addition, ASC 326 made changes to the accounting for available-for-sale debt securities. One such change is to require credit losses to be presented as an allowance rather than as a write-down on available-for-sale debt securities management does not intend to sell or believes that is not more likely than not they will be required to sell.

The Company adopted ASC 326 and all the subsequent amendments there to effective January 1, 2023 using the modified retrospective method for all financial assets measured at amortized cost, and off-balance-sheet credit exposures. Results for reporting periods beginning after January 1, 2023 are presented under ASC 326 while prior periods amounts continue to be reported in accordance with previously applicable GAAP. The Company recorded a net decrease to retained earnings of $1.7 million, net of taxes, as of January 1, 2023 for the cumulative effect of adopting ASC 326. The transition adjustment includes an increase in allowance for credit losses of $2.2 million and an increase in net deferred tax assets of $506,000.

See Note 1, Organization, Basis of Presentation, and Impact of Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements and Note 5, Allowance for Credit Losses, in Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for further information on the Company’s adoption of ASC 326.

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The following table sets forth activity in our allowance for credit losses on loans for the periods indicated.

For the Year Ended December 31, For the Year Ended December 31,

(Dollars in thousands)

Current expected credit losses, nonrecurring adoption 895 —

Charge-offs:

Commercial and industrial (462 ) —

Consumer (6 ) —

Total charge-offs (468 ) —

Recoveries:

Residential real estate 7 —

Total recoveries 22 19

Net (charge-offs) recoveries (446 ) 19

Provision for credit losses - loans 1,943 2,398

Ratios:

Net charge offs to average loans outstanding 0.03 % 0.00 %

The following table summarizes our net charge-off activity by loan segment for the periods indicated.

At December 31,

Real Estate:

Residential $ — $ 7 $ 7 0.0 % $ — $ — $ — 0.0 %

At December 31, 2023, our allowance for credit losses on loans represented 0.96% of total loans and we had only $1.0 million in non-performing loans. The allowance for credit losses on loans increased to $16.5 million at December 31, 2023 from $14.1 million at December 31, 2022 as a direct result of adopting the CECL accounting standard and normal credit provisions in conjunction with loan growth throughout the year. There were $446,000 in net loan charge-offs and $19,000 in net loan recoveries during the years ended December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022, respectively.

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Allocation of Allowance for Credit Losses on Loans.The following table sets forth the allowance for credit losses on loans allocated by loan category and the percent of the allowance in each category to the total allocated allowance on credit losses for loans at the dates indicated. The allowance for credit losses on loans allocated to each category is not necessarily indicative of future losses in any particular category and does not restrict the use of the allowance to absorb losses in other categories.

At December 31,

Residential Real Estate:

Commercial Real Estate:

Commercial – Non Real Estate:

Consumer – Non Real Estate:

Funding Activities

Deposits are the primary source of funds for lending and investing activities and their cost is the largest category of interest expense. The Company also utilizes wholesale deposits as a funding source in addition to customer deposits. Scheduled payments, as well as prepayments, and maturities from portfolios of loans and investment securities also provide a stable source of funds. FHLB advances, other secured borrowings, federal funds purchased, and other short-term borrowed funds, as well as longer-term debt issued through the capital markets, all provide supplemental liquidity sources. The Company’s funding activities are monitored and governed through the Company’s asset/liability management process

Deposits

Total deposits increased by $173.2 million from December 31, 2022 to December 31, 2023. Wholesale deposits, which are included in the table below, totaled $433.0 million and $355.6 million at December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022, respectively. The following table presents the Company’s average deposits segregated by major category for the year ended December 31, 2023:

At December 31,

(Dollars in thousands)

Deposit type:

The pronounced shift from non-interest bearing demand deposits into money market demand and time deposits was driven by market conditions emanating from the large-bank failures in the first half of 2023. In order for us to maintain the customer relationships, we needed to shift the deposits into accounts where we could provide excess FDIC insurance coverage. We also gained in money market demand and time deposits as customers brought additional funds into the Company.

The Company uses wholesale deposits as a funding source in addition to customer deposits. Wholesale deposits provide a diversified and stable source of funding during times of market volatility. As of December 31, 2023, the Company had $433.0 million of total wholesale deposit funding sources, an increase of $77.5 million compared to December 31, 2022, which totaled $355.6 million.

Given the interest rate environment and strategic initiatives, the Company replaced maturing lower yielding wholesale CDs with higher market rate CDs. The replacement CDs include call options at our discretion if economic conditions changed. The Company also utilized additional wholesale demand deposits to provide liquidity and more effectively balance our interest rate sensitivity. During the year ended December 31, 2023, total wholesale deposit funding accounted for approximately 33% of our interest expense.

The following table presents the Company's total wholesale deposit composition, concentrations, current rate and remaining duration, if applicable as of December 31, 2023.

As of December 31,

(Dollars in thousands)

Wholesale Time Deposits

Wholesale CDs:

(2) Average weighted call date is April 2024

Regulatory Defined Wholesale Deposits

Each quarter the Bank files a bank call report with the FDIC, which has a specific way it defines wholesale brokered deposits. As of December 31, 2023, the Company had $398.5 million of wholesale deposits outstanding, as defined by FDIC, an increase of $81 million from December 31, 2022. In addition, pursuant to rule 12 CFR 337.6(e), well-capitalized and well-rated institutions are not required to treat reciprocal deposits as wholesale deposits up to the lesser of 20 percent of their total liabilities or $5 billion. Reciprocal core deposits exceeding this threshold must be reported additionally as wholesale deposits for call report purposes only. As of December 31, 2023, the Company additionally reported $176.3 million in reciprocal deposits considered wholesale for call report purposes only, bringing regulatory defined wholesale deposits to $574.8 million as of December 31, 2023. As of December 31, 2023, all of the Company's reciprocal deposits were core deposits from customers who placed their deposits in the reciprocal network for additional FDIC insurance coverage.

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At December 31, 2023, the Company had $387.8 million in total deposits in excess of the FDIC insurance limit of $250,000.

Certificates of deposit in amounts in excess of the FDIC insurance limit of $250,000 totaled approximately $99.9 million. The following table sets forth the maturity of these certificates as of December 31, 2023.

(In thousands)

Maturity period:

Three months or less $ 22,824

Over three through six months 9,461

Over six through twelve months 38,848

Over twelve months through three years 28,762

Over three years —

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The following table sets forth all of our time deposits classified by interest rate as of the dates indicated.

At December 31,

(In thousands)

Interest Rate Range:

The following table sets forth by interest rate ranges information concerning the maturities of our certificates of deposit as of December 31, 2023.

Period to Maturity

(Dollars in thousands)

Interest Rate Range:

Borrowed Funds

We may obtain advances from the Federal Home Loan Bank of Richmond upon the security of the common stock we own in that bank and certain of our residential and commercial mortgage loans, provided certain standards related to creditworthiness have been met. These advances are made pursuant to several credit programs, each of which has its own interest rate and range of maturities. Federal Home Loan Bank advances are generally available to meet seasonal and other withdrawals of deposit accounts and to permit increased lending.

At December 31, 2023 and 2022, we were permitted to borrow up to an aggregate total of $504.8 million and $465.0 million, respectively, from the Federal Home Loan Bank of Richmond. There were Federal Home Loan Bank borrowings outstanding of $0 and $100.0 million at December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022, respectively. Additionally, we had credit availability of $114.0 million with correspondent banks for short-term liquidity needs, if necessary. Borrowings were $15.0 million and $0 outstanding at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, under this facility.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Liquidity is the ability of the Company to convert assets into cash or cash equivalents without significant loss and to raise additional funds by increasing liabilities. Liquidity management involves maintaining the Company’s ability to meet the day-to-day cash flow requirements of its customers, whether they are depositors wishing to withdraw funds or borrowers requiring funds to meet their credit needs. Without proper liquidity management, the Company would not be able to perform the primary function of a financial intermediary and would, therefore, not be able to meet the needs of the communities it serves.

The Company assesses liquidity needs on a daily basis using a sophisticated monitoring system that identifies daily sources and uses for a rolling 30-day period. The Company also assesses liquidity needs under various scenarios of market conditions, asset growth and changes in credit ratings. The assessment includes liquidity stress testing which measures various sources and uses of funds under the different scenarios. The assessment provides regular monitoring of unused borrowing capacity and available sources of contingent liquidity to prepare for unexpected liquidity needs and to cover unanticipated events that could affect liquidity.

The asset portion of the balance sheet provides liquidity primarily through unencumbered debt securities available for sale, loan principal and interest payments, maturities and prepayments of investment securities held to maturity and, to a lesser extent, sales of investment debt securities available for sale. Other short-term investments such as federal funds sold and maturing interest-bearing deposits with other banks, are additional sources of liquidity.

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The liability portion of the balance sheet provides liquidity through various customers’ interest-bearing and noninterest-bearing deposit accounts and through FHLB and other borrowings. Wholesale deposits, federal funds purchased, and other short-term borrowings are additional sources of liquidity and, basically, represent the Company’s incremental borrowing capacity. These sources of liquidity are used as necessary to fund asset growth and meet short-term liquidity needs.

In addition to the Company’s financial performance and condition, liquidity may be impacted by the Company’s structure as a bank holding company that is a separate legal entity from the Bank. The Company requires cash for various operating needs that could include payment of dividends to its stockholders, the servicing of debt, and the payment of general corporate expenses. The primary source of liquidity for the Company is dividends paid by the Bank. Applicable federal and state statutes and regulations impose restrictions on the amount of dividends that may be paid by the Bank. In addition to the formal statutes and regulations, regulatory authorities also consider the adequacy of the Bank’s total capital in relation to its assets, deposits and other such items. Any future dividends must be set forth in the Company's capital plans before any dividends can be paid.

The Company’s ability to raise funding at competitive prices is affected by the rating agencies’ views of the Company’s credit quality, liquidity, capital and earnings. Management is rated by an independent rating agency annually and is provided with independent current outlook for the Company.

The Board of Director's and the Asset Liability Committee (ALCO) are responsible for establishing and monitoring our liquidity targets and strategies in order to ensure that sufficient liquidity exists for meeting the borrowing needs and deposit withdrawals of our customers as well as unanticipated contingencies. We believe that we have enough sources of liquidity to satisfy our short and long-term liquidity needs as of December 31, 2023.

We monitor and adjust our investments in liquid assets based upon our assessment of: (1) expected loan demand; (2) expected deposit flows; (3) yields available on interest-earning deposits and securities; and (4) the objectives of our asset/liability management program. Excess liquid assets are invested generally in interest-earning deposits and short-and intermediate-term securities.

While maturities and scheduled amortization of loans and securities are predictable sources of funds, deposit flows and loan prepayments are greatly influenced by general interest rates, economic conditions, and competition. Our most liquid assets are cash and cash equivalents, which include federal funds sold and interest-earning deposits in other banks. The levels of these assets are dependent on our operating, financing, lending and investing activities during any given period. At December 31, 2023, cash and cash equivalents totaled $114.5 million. Securities classified as available-for-sale, which provide additional sources of liquidity, totaled $59.9 million at December 31, 2023.

Our cash flows are comprised of three primary classifications: cash flows from operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities. Net cash provided by operating activities was $31.6 million and $33.5 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022, respectively. Net cash used in investing activities, which consists primarily of disbursements for loan originations and the purchase of securities, offset by principal collections on loans and proceeds from maturing securities, was $130.7 million and $228.7 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022, respectively. There were no sales of available-for-sale debt securities in 2023 or 2022. Net cash provided by financing activities was $83.0 million and $232.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, which consisted primarily of increases in interest bearing deposits and federal funds purchased for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023. There were repayments of $100.0 million to the Federal Home Loan Bank for year ended 2023.

We are committed to maintaining a strong liquidity position. We monitor our liquidity position on a daily basis. We anticipate that we will have sufficient funds to meet our current funding commitments. Certificates of deposit due within one year of December 31, 2023, totaled $463.7 million of total deposits. If these deposits do not remain with us, we will be required to seek other sources of funds in the normal course of business, including other deposits and Federal Home Loan Bank advances. Depending on market conditions, we may be required to pay higher rates on such deposits or borrowings than we currently pay. We believe, however, based on past experience that a significant portion of such deposits will remain with us. We have the ability to attract and retain deposits by adjusting the interest rates offered. Management believes that the current sources of liquidity are adequate to meet the Company’s requirements and plans for continued growth.

Regulatory Capital

The Bank is subject to various regulatory capital requirements administered by the federal banking agencies. Failure to meet minimum capital requirements can initiate certain mandatory and possible additional discretionary actions by regulators that, if undertaken, could have a direct material effect on the Company’s consolidated financial statements. Under capital adequacy guidelines and the regulatory framework for prompt corrective action, the Bank must meet specific capital guidelines that involve quantitative measures of assets, liabilities, and certain off-balance sheet items as calculated under regulatory accounting practices. The capital amounts and classifications are also subject to qualitative judgments by the regulators about components, risk weightings and other factors.

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The federal regulatory capital rules apply to all depository institutions as well as to bank holding companies with consolidated assets of $3 billion or more. However, the regulatory capital requirements generally do not apply on a consolidated basis to a bank holding company with total consolidated assets of less than $3 billion unless the holding company: (1) is engaged in significant nonbanking activities either directly or through a nonbank subsidiary; (2) conducts significant off-balance sheet activities (including securitization and asset management or administration) either directly or through a nonbank subsidiary; or (3) has a material amount of debt or equity securities outstanding (other than trust preferred securities) that are registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Federal Reserve may apply the regulatory capital standards at its discretion to any bank holding company, regardless of asset size, if such action is warranted for supervisory purposes.

Because the Company has total consolidated assets of less than $3 billion and does not engage in activities that would trigger application of the federal regulatory capital rules, it is not at present subject to consolidated capital requirements under such rules.

The Basel III Capital Rules, a comprehensive capital framework for U.S. banking organizations, became effective for the Bank on January 1, 2015 (subject to a phase-in period for certain provisions). Under the Basel III rules, the Bank must hold a capital conservation buffer above the adequately capitalized risk-based capital ratios. The capital conservation buffer was phased in from 0.0% for 2015 to 2.50% by 2019. The capital conservation buffer for 2023 and 2022 is 2.50%. Quantitative measures established by regulation to ensure capital adequacy require the Bank to maintain minimum amounts and ratios of Total capital, Common Equity Tier 1 capital, and Tier 1 capital (as defined in the regulations) to risk weighted assets (as defined), and of Tier 1 capital (as defined) to average assets (as defined). Management believes, as of December 31, 2023, the Bank meets all capital adequacy requirements to which it is subject.

As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, the most recent notification from the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond categorized the Bank as well capitalized under the regulatory framework for prompt corrective action. To be categorized as well capitalized, the Bank must maintain minimum total risk-based, Common Equity Tier 1 risk-based, Tier 1 risk-based, and Tier 1 leverage ratios as set forth in the following table. There are no conditions or events since that notification that management believes have changed the Bank’s category.

The Bank’s actual regulatory capital amounts and ratios as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 are presented in the table below.

(Dollars in thousands) Amount Ratio Amount Ratio Amount Ratio

Non-GAAP Measures

In reporting the results of December 31, 2023, the Company has provided supplemental performance measures on an operating basis. These measures are a supplement to GAAP used to prepare the Company’s financial statements and should not be considered in isolation or as a substitute for comparable measures calculated in accordance with GAAP. In addition, the Company’s non-GAAP measures may not be comparable to non-GAAP measures of other companies. The Company uses the non-GAAP measures discussed herein in its analysis of the Company’s performance.

Net interest margin on a fully tax equivalent (FTE) basis, provides valuable additional insight into the net interest margin and the impact that investments in tax-exempt securities have on our financial metrics. The entire FTE adjustment is attributable to the interest tax effect on tax-exempt securities, using the statutory federal income tax rate of 21%.

The Company believes that tangible common stockholders' equity, excluding intangible assets, is a meaningful supplement to GAAP financial measures and useful to investors because it provides an additional measure to calculate the book value of our common shares by removing the value of a subjective portion of our balance sheet.

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The following table reconciles these non-GAAP measures from their respective GAAP basis measures for the years ended December 31,

For the year ended December 31,

Net interest margin (FTE)

FTE adjustment on tax-exempt securities 283 281

Net interest margin (GAAP) 4.06 % 4.18 %

Net interest margin (FTE) (non-GAAP) 4.08 % 4.19 %

Stockholders' equity, adjusted

Tangible common stockholders' equity (non-GAAP) 179,597 161,870

Tangible book value per common share (non-GAAP) $ 23.86 $ 21.75

Yield on earning assets (FTE)

FTE adjustment on tax-exempt securities 283 281

Yield on earning assets (GAAP) 6.64 % 5.00 %

Yield on earning assets (FTE) (non-GAAP) 6.65 % 5.02 %

Net interest spread (FTE)

Yield on earning assets (GAAP) 6.64 % 5.00 %

Yield on earning assets (FTE) (non-GAAP) 6.65 % 5.02 %

Yield on interest-bearing liabilities 3.70 % 1.36 %

Net interest spread (GAAP) 2.94 % 3.64 %

Net interest spread (FTE) (non-GAAP) 2.95 % 3.66 %

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Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk

Market Risk Management

The effective management of market risk is essential to achieving the Company’s strategic financial objectives. As a financial institution, the Company’s most significant market risk exposure is interest rate risk in its balance sheet; however, market risk also includes product liquidity risk, price risk and volatility risk in the Company’s lines of business. The primary objectives of market risk management are to minimize any adverse effect that changes in market risk factors may have on net interest income, and to offset the risk of price changes for certain assets recorded at fair value.

Interest Rate Market Risk

The Company’s net interest income and the fair value of its financial instruments are influenced by changes in the level of interest rates. The Company manages its exposure to fluctuations in interest rates through policies established by its Asset/Liability Committee. The Asset/Liability Committee meets regularly and has responsibility for approving asset/liability management policies, formulating strategies to improve balance sheet positioning and/or earnings and reviewing the interest rate sensitivity of the Company.

We estimate what our net interest income would be for a 12-month period. We then calculate what the net interest income would be for the same period under different interest rate assumptions. These estimates require certain assumptions to be made, including loan and mortgage-related investment prepayment speeds, reinvestment rates, and deposit maturity and decay rates. These assumptions are inherently uncertain. As a result, no simulation model can precisely predict the impact of changes in interest rates on our net interest income.

The table below sets forth, as of December 31, 2023, the calculation of the estimated changes in our net interest income that would result from changes in market interest rates over one year if we take no action from our current plan.

Basis Point Change in Net Interest Income Year 1 Change

Interest Rates Year 1 Forecast From Level

(Dollars in thousands)

Economic Value of Equity (“EVE”). We analyze the sensitivity of our financial condition to changes in interest rates through our economic value of equity model. This analysis measures the difference between predicted changes in the fair value of our assets and predicted changes in the present value of our liabilities assuming various changes in current interest rates. The table below represents an analysis of our interest rate risk as measured by the estimated changes in our economic value of equity, resulting from an instantaneous and sustained parallel shift in the yield curve at December 31, 2023.

Estimated Increase EVE as a Percentage of Fair

(Decrease) EVE Value of Assets(3)

Basis Point Increase

Change in Estimated EVE (Decrease)

Interest Rates(1) EVE(2) Amount Percent Ratio(4) Basis Points

(Dollars in thousands)

(1) Assumes an immediate uniform change in interest rates at all maturities.

(4) EVE Ratio represents EVE divided by the fair value of assets.

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Market Interest Rate Shift

The financial statements and related data presented herein have been prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America which require the measurement of financial position and operating results in terms of historical dollars without considering changes in relative purchasing power of money over time due to inflation.

The majority of assets and liabilities of a financial institution are monetary in nature; therefore, a financial institution differs greatly from most commercial and industrial companies, which have significant investments in fixed assets or inventories that are greatly impacted by inflation. However, inflation does have an important impact on the growth of total assets in the banking industry and the resulting need to increase equity capital at higher than normal rates in order to maintain an appropriate equity-to-assets ratio. Inflation also affects other expenses that tend to rise during periods of general inflation.

Management believes the most significant potential impact of inflation on financial results is a direct result of the Company’s ability to manage the impact of changes in interest rates. Management attempts to maintain a balanced position between rate-sensitive assets and liabilities in order to minimize the impact of interest rate fluctuations on net interest income. However, this goal can be difficult to completely achieve in times of rapidly changing interest rates and is one of many factors considered in determining the Company’s interest rate positioning. The Company is asset sensitive as of December 31, 2023. Refer to the Net Interest Income Sensitivity table for additional details on the Company’s interest rate sensitivity.

The Bank also uses derivative financial instruments to manage risk to the Bank associated with changing interest rates, and to assist customers with their risk management objectives. The Bank enters into interest rate swaps with certain qualifying commercial loan customers to meet their interest rate risk management needs. The net result of these interest rate swaps is that the customer pays a fixed rate of interest and the Bank receives a floating rate thus allowing the Bank another tool to further manage the interest rate risk for certain products. These back-to-back loan swaps qualify as financial derivatives with fair values reported in “Other assets” and “Other liabilities” in the Consolidated Statement of Financial Condition.

We believe that our current interest rate exposure is manageable and does not indicate any significant exposure to interest rate changes.

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Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data

REPORT OF INDEPENDENT REGISTERED PUBLIC ACCOUNTING FIRM

To the Stockholders and the Board of Directors

MainStreet Bancshares, Inc.

Fairfax, Virginia

Opinion on the Financial Statements

We have audited the accompanying consolidated statements of financial condition of MainStreet Bancshares, Inc. and Subsidiary (the Company) as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, the related consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, stockholders' equity and cash flows for the years then ended, and the related notes to the consolidated financial statements (collectively, the financial statements). In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

Adoption of New Accounting Standard

As discussed in Notes 1 and 5 to the consolidated financial statements, the Company changed its method of accounting for the allowance for credit losses effective January 1, 2023, due to the adoption of Accounting Standards Update 2016-13, Financial Instruments – Credit Losses (Topic 326), Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments, including all related amendments.

Basis for Opinion

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audits to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Company is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audits, we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion.

Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

/s/ YOUNT, HYDE & BARBOUR, P.C.

We have served as the Company's auditor since 2008.

Owings Mills, Maryland

March 20, 2024

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Item8 – Financial Statements and Supplementary Data

Consolidated Financial Statements

Consolidated Statements of Financial Condition as of December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022 (Dollars in thousands, except per share data)

Assets

Investment securities available-for-sale, at fair value 59,928 62,631

Restricted securities, at amortized cost 24,356 24,325

Accrued interest and other receivables 12,390 9,581

Computer software, net of amortization 14,657 9,149

Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity

Liabilities

Federal funds purchased 15,000 —

Federal Home Loan Bank advances — 100,000

Allowance for credit losses on off-balance sheet credit exposure 1,009 —

Commitments and contingencies (Note 13)

Stockholders’ Equity

Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) (7,478 ) (8,546 )

See Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements

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Consolidated Statements of Income for the Years Ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 (Dollars in thousands, except per share data).

For the Year Ended December 31,

Interest Income

Interest and dividends on investments securities

U.S. government agencies and corporations — 37

Mortgage-backed securities 395 438

Tax-exempt obligations of states and political subdivisions 1,065 1,058

Taxable obligations of states and political subdivisions 256 254

Interest on federal funds sold 5,038 2,312

Interest Expense

Interest on interest bearing DDA deposits 1,892 601

Interest on savings and NOW deposits 546 203

Interest on money market deposits 13,924 1,547

Interest on federal fund purchases 299 —

Interest on Federal Home Loan Bank advances 1,224 347

Interest on subordinated debt 3,288 2,936

Provision For Credit Losses - Loans 1,943 2,398

Recovery of Credit Losses - Off-Balance Sheet Credit Exposure (301 ) —

Non-Interest Income

Deposit account service charges 2,149 2,420

Bank owned life insurance income 1,069 1,008

Loan swap fee income — 619

Net gain on held-to-maturity securities — 4

Net loss on sale of loans — (168 )

Non-Interest Expense

Furniture and equipment expenses 2,787 2,786

Administrative expenses 922 872

Other real estate expenses, net — 38

Net Income available to common shareholders $ 24,429 $ 24,518

Earnings per common share:

See Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements

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Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income for the Years Ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 (Dollars in thousands)

For the Year Ended December 31,

Comprehensive Income, net of taxes

Other comprehensive gain (loss), net of tax expense (benefit):

Other comprehensive gain (loss) 1,068 (8,743 )

See Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements

Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity for the Years Ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 (Dollars in thousands).

Accumulated Other

Preferred Common Capital Retained Comprehensive

Stock Stock Surplus Earnings Income (Loss) Total

Cumulative change in accounting principle (Note 3) — — — (1,699 ) — (1,699 )

Vesting of restricted stock — 470 (470 ) — — —

Stock based compensation expense — — 2,491 — — 2,491

Common stock repurchased — (8 ) (35 ) — — (43 )

Dividends on common stock - ($0.40 per share) — — — (3,011 ) — (3,011 )

Other comprehensive gain — — — — 1,068 1,068

Accumulated Other

Preferred Common Capital Retained Comprehensive

Stock Stock Surplus Earnings Income (Loss) Total

Vesting of restricted stock — 407 (407 ) — — —

Stock based compensation expense — — 2,519 — — 2,519

Dividends on common stock - ($0.25 per share) — — — (1,882 ) — (1,882 )

Other comprehensive loss — — — — (8,743 ) (8,743 )

See Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements

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Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (Dollars in thousands)

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Depreciation, amortization, and accretion, net 2,268 2,083

Amortization of right-of-use assets 477 496

Deferred income tax benefit (191 ) (894 )

Loss on sale of other real estate owned — 4

Loss on valuation of other real estate owned — 70

Loss on loans held for sale — 168

Loss on New Market Tax Credit investment operations 251 —

Gain on disposal of premises and equipment (129 ) —

Gain on called held-to-maturity securities — (4 )

Provision for credit losses, net 1,642 2,398

Stock based compensation expense 2,491 2,519

Income from bank owned life insurance (1,069 ) (1,008 )

Subordinated debt amortization expense 397 328

Change in:

Accrued interest receivable and other receivables (2,803 ) (1,861 )

Net cash provided by operating activities 31,633 33,544

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Activity in available-for-sale securities:

Maturities, sales, called, refunded — 245,000

Activity in held-to-maturity securities:

Maturities, called, refunded 265 2,595

Purchases of equity securities (4,174 ) (3,916 )

Purchases of restricted investment in bank stock (7,059 ) (9,123 )

Redemption of restricted investment in bank stock 10,425 4,125

Proceeds from sale of other real estate owned — 701

Proceeds from sale of premises and equipment 129 —

Purchases of premises and equipment (497 ) (1,125 )

Computer software developed (5,508 ) (6,656 )

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net increase (decrease) in non-interest deposits (186,084 ) 20,012

Net increase (decrease) in Federal Home Loan Bank advances (100,000 ) 100,000

Net increase in federal funds purchased 15,000 —

Net increase in subordinated debt — 42,623

Repurchase of common stock (43 ) (6,918 )

Cash dividends paid on preferred stock (2,156 ) (2,156 )

Cash dividends paid on common stock (3,011 ) (1,882 )

Net cash provided by financing activities 83,028 232,593

Increase (decrease) in Cash and Cash Equivalents (16,087 ) 37,401

Cash and Cash Equivalents, beginning of period 130,600 93,199

Supplementary Disclosure of Cash Flow Information

Cash paid during the period for interest $ 45,534 $ 12,639

Cash paid during the period for income taxes $ 7,280 $ 6,381

Net unrealized gain (loss) on securities available-for-sale $ 1,371 $ (11,373 )

See Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements

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MAINSTREET BANCSHARES,INC. AND SUBSIDIARY

Notes to Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements

Note 1. Organization, Basis of Presentation and Impact of Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

Organization

MainStreet Bancshares Inc. (the “Company”) is a bank holding company incorporated under the laws of the Commonwealth of Virginia whose principal activity is the ownership and management of MainStreet Bank. On May 18,2016, the stockholders of MainStreet Bank (the “Bank”) approved a Reorganization Agreement and Plan of Share Exchange (“Reorganization”) whereby the Bank would reorganize into a holding company structure. The Plan of Share Exchange called for each outstanding share of Bank common stock to be automatically converted into and exchanged for one share of the Company’s common stock, and the common stockholders of the Bank would become the common stockholders of the Company on the effective date of the Reorganization. On October 12, 2021, the Company filed an election with the Federal Reserve Board to be a financial holding company in order to engage in a broader range of financial activities than are permitted for bank holding companies generally. The Company is authorized to issue 10,000,000 shares of common stock with a par value of $4.00 per share. Additionally, the Company is authorized to issue 2,000,000 shares of preferred stock at a par value $1.00 per share. There are currently 28,750 shares of preferred stock outstanding.

On July 15,2016, the Reorganization became effective, and the Bank became a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Company. The holding company is regulated under the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, as amended, and is subject to inspection, examination, and supervision by the Federal Reserve Board.

On April 18, 2019, the Company completed the registration of its common stock with the Securities Exchange Commission through its filing of a General Form for Registration of Securities on Form 10 (“Form 10”), pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. The Company is considered an “emerging growth company” under the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the “JOBS Act,” and as defined in Section 2(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the “Securities Act.” We are also a “smaller reporting company” as defined in Exchange Act Rule 12b-2. As such, we may elect to comply with certain reduced public company reporting requirements in future reports that we file with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the “SEC.”

We were approved to list shares of our common stock on the Nasdaq Capital Market under our current symbol “MNSB” as of April 22,2019. We were approved to list depositary shares of preferred stock on the Nasdaq Capital Market on the symbol “MNSBP” as of September 16, 2020. Each depositary share represents a 1/40th interest in a share of 7.50% Series A Fixed-Rate Non-Cumulative Perpetual Preferred Stock.

In August 2021, the Company created a community development entity (“CDE”) subsidiary, MainStreet Community Capital, LLC, a Virginia limited liability company to promote development in economically distressed areas. This CDE will be an intermediary vehicle for the provision of loans and investments in Low-Income Communities (“LICs”). In January 2022, the Community Development Financial Institutions Fund (“CDFI”) of the United States Department of the Treasury certified MainStreet Community Capital, LLC as a registered CDE.

MainStreet Bank is headquartered in Fairfax, Virginia where it also operates a branch. The Bank was incorporated on March 28,2003, and received its charter from the Bureau of Financial Institutions of the Commonwealth of Virginia (the “Bureau”) on March 16,2004. The Bank commenced regular operations on May 26,2004, and is supervised by the Bureau and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. The Bank is a member of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. The Bank places special emphasis on serving the needs of individuals, and small and medium-sized businesses and professionals in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area.

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying financial statements have been prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“US GAAP”) as applicable to a smaller reporting company.

Principles of Consolidation – The consolidated financial statements include accounts of the Company and its wholly-owned subsidiaries, the Bank and MainStreet Community Capital, LLC. All significant intercompany transactions and balances have been eliminated in consolidation.

Cash and cash equivalents – For the purpose of presentation in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, the Bank has defined cash and cash equivalents as those amounts included in the statement of financial condition captions “Cash and due from banks” and “Federal funds sold.”

Investment securities – The Bank’s investment debt securities are classified as either held to maturity, available for sale or trading. At December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022, the Bank held approximately $17.3 million and $17.6 million, respectively, in securities classified as held to maturity. The Bank held no securities classified as trading.

Debt securities which are not classified as held to maturity or trading are classified as securities available for sale (AFS). Debt securities available for sale are reported at fair value. Any unrealized gain or loss, net of applicable income taxes, is reported as a separate addition to or reduction from stockholders’ equity. Gains and losses arising from the sale of debt securities available for sale are recognized based on the specific identification method on a trade-date basis and included in results of operations.

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Debt securities held to maturity includes securities purchased with the ability and positive intent to hold to maturity. Debt securities are stated at historical cost adjusted for amortization of premiums and accretion of discount, and net of any allowance for credit losses. The Company measures expected credit losses on held-to-maturity (HTM) securities on a collective basis by major security type and credit ratings. Accrued interest receivable on these securities are excluded from the estimate of credit losses. For HTM securities, the Company evaluates the credit risk of its securities on at least a quarterly basis. The Company estimates expected credit losses on HTM debt securities on an individual basis using security-level credit ratings. The primary indicators of credit quality for the Company’s HTM portfolio are security type and credit rating, which is influenced by a number of factors including obligor cash flow, geography, seniority, and others. The adoption of CECL had an insignificant impact on the Company's held-to-maturity securities portfolio.

Purchase premiums and discounts are amortized using the interest method over the term or first call date of each security. A HTM or an AFS debt security that management does not intend to sell, for which there has been a value impairment deemed by management, an allowance for credit losses is established and written down. An AFS security that management does intend to sell or more likely than not will be required to sell, that is in an unrealized loss position shall be written down to its fair value with a charge to current operations.

Restricted equity securities consist of the Federal Reserve Bank and Federal Home Loan Bank of Atlanta (“FHLB”) stock in the amount of $5.2 million and $1.3 million respectively, as of December 31, 2023, compared to $4.8 million and $5.1 million, respectively, as of December 31, 2022. Restricted equity securities also consisted of $126,800 in Community Bankers Bank stock at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022. This restricted stock is recorded at cost because its ownership is restricted and it lacks a market for resale. The Bank is required to maintain Federal Reserve Bank stock at a level of 6% of capital and surplus. The FHLB requires the Bank to maintain stock, at a minimum, in an amount equal to 4.5% of outstanding borrowings and 0.20% of total assets. When evaluating restricted stock for impairment, its value is based on ultimate recoverability of the par value rather than by recognizing temporary declines in value. The Bank does not consider these investments to be impaired at December 31, 2023 or December 31, 2022 and no previous impairment has been recognized as of December 31, 2023. Restricted equities include $8.2 million in Low-Income Housing Tax Credits (“LIHTC”) that are carried at amortized cost through the proportional amortization method. Restricted equities also include $6.4 million of nonmarketable securities as of December 31, 2023 that do not qualify for equity method accounting. As of December 31, 2022 restricted equities include $6.7 million in LIHTC and $6.1 million of nonmarketable securities that do not qualify for equity method accounting. These investments are recorded at cost because the ownership is restricted and lacks a market for resale.

Loans - The Bank makes commercial and consumer loans to customers. Our recorded investment in loans that management has the intent and ability to hold for the foreseeable future, or until maturity or pay-off, generally are reported at their unpaid principal balances adjusted for charge-offs, unearned discounts, any deferred fees or costs on originated loans, and the allowance for credit losses on loans. Interest on loans is credited to operations based on the principal amount outstanding. Loan fees and origination costs are deferred and the net amount is amortized as an adjustment of the related loan’s yield using the effective interest method. The Bank is amortizing these amounts over the contractual life of the related loans.

A loan’s past due status is based on the contractual due date of the most delinquent payment due. All loans which are 30 or more days past due at the end of the month are reported to the Board of Directors. Commercial loans are generally placed on nonaccrual status when the collection of principal or interest is 90 days or more past due, or earlier, if collection is uncertain based on an evaluation of the net realizable value of the collateral and the financial strength of the borrower. Consumer loans are generally placed on nonaccrual status when the collection of principal or interest is 120 days or more past due, or earlier, if collection is uncertain based on an evaluation of the net realizable value of the collateral and the financial strength of the borrower. Loans greater than 90 days past due may remain on accrual status if management determines it has adequate collateral to cover the principal and interest. For those loans that are carried on nonaccrual status, payments are first applied to principal outstanding. A loan may be returned to accrual status if the borrower has demonstrated a sustained period of repayment performance in accordance with the contractual terms of the loan and there is reasonable assurance the borrower will continue to make payments as agreed. It is Bank policy to charge-off loans whose collectability is sufficiently questionable and can no longer be justified as an asset on the statement of financial condition. To determine if a loan should be charged-off, all possible sources of repayment are analyzed, including: (1) the potential for future cash flow, (2) the value of the Bank’s collateral, and (3) the strength of co-makers or guarantors. All principal and previously accrued interest is charged to the allowance for credit losses. All future payments received on the loan are credited to the allowance for credit losses as a recovery. These policies are applied consistently across our loan portfolio.

The Company designates individually evaluated loans on nonaccrual status as collateral-dependent loans, as well as other loans that management of the Company designates as having higher risk. Collateral-dependent loans are loans for which the repayment is expected to be provided substantially through the operation or sale of the collateral and the borrower is experiencing financial difficulty. These loans do not share common risk characteristics and are not included within the collectively evaluated loans for determining the allowance for credit losses. Under CECL, for collateral-dependent loans, the Company has adopted the practical expedient to measure the allowance for credit losses based on the fair value of collateral. The allowance for credit losses is calculated on an individual loan basis based on the shortfall between the fair value of the loan's collateral, which is adjusted for liquidation costs/discounts, and amortized cost. If the fair value of the collateral exceeds the amortized cost, no allowance is required.

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Allowance for Credit Losses - see discussion of allowance for credit loss presentation under Recently Adopted Accounting Policies.

Other Real Estate Owned (“OREO”) - Assets acquired through, or in lieu of, loan foreclosure are held for sale and are initially recorded at fair value less costs to sell at the date of foreclosure, establishing a new cost basis. Any required initial write-downs are charged to allowance for credit losses. Subsequent to foreclosure, management periodically performs valuations of the foreclosed assets based on updated appraisals, general market conditions, and recent sales of like properties, length of time the properties have been held and our ability and intention with regard to continued ownership of the properties. The Bank may incur additional write-downs of foreclosed assets to fair value less costs to sell if valuations indicate a further deterioration in market values. Revenue and expenses from operations and changes in the valuation allowance are included in net expenses from foreclosed assets and improvements are capitalized.

Interest income on loans – Interest on loans is accrued and credited to income on daily balances of the principal amount outstanding. The accrual of interest on loans is discontinued when, in the opinion of management, there is an indication that the borrower may be unable to meet payments as they become due. Upon such discontinuance, all unpaid accrued interest is reversed.

Generally, the Bank will return a loan to accrual status when all delinquent interest and principal becomes current and remains current for six consecutive months under the terms of the loan agreement or the loan is well-secured or in process of collection. Upon returning to accrual status, interest payments applied to the principal balance of a loan while in nonaccrual status are recognized as a yield adjustment over the remaining life.

Loan origination and commitment fees and certain related direct costs- Loan origination and commitment fees charged by the Bank and certain direct loan origination costs are deferred and the net amount is amortized as a yield adjustment. The Bank amortizes these net amounts over the life of the related loans or, in the case of demand loans, over the estimated life. Net fees related to standby letters of credit are recognized over the commitment period.

Premises and equipment – Land is carried at cost. Premises and equipment are stated at cost, less accumulated depreciation and amortization computed principally on the straight-line basis over the estimated useful life of each asset, which ranges from 3 to 39 years. Leasehold improvements are amortized over the shorter of the related lease term or the estimated useful lives of the improvements. Construction in progress includes assets which will be reclassified and depreciated once placed into service.

Computer softwaredevelopment - The Company capitalizes new product development costs incurred for software to be sold from the point at which technological feasibility has been established through the point at which the product is ready for general availability. Software development costs that are capitalized are evaluated annually for impairment and are assigned an estimated economic life based on the type of product, market characteristics, and maturity of the market for that particular product. These costs are amortized on a straight-line basis. All of this amortization expense is included within components of operating income.

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Income taxes – The Bank uses an asset and liability approach in financial accounting and reporting for income taxes. Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are computed for differences between the financial statement and tax bases of assets and liabilities that will result in taxable or deductible amounts in the future. The principal items relate primarily to differences between the allowance for credit losses, deferred loan fees, and accumulated depreciation and amortization. Valuation allowances are established when necessary to reduce deferred tax assets to the amount expected to be realized. Income tax expense (benefit) is the tax payable or refundable for the period plus or minus the change during the period in deferred tax assets and liabilities.

When tax returns are filed, it is highly certain that some positions taken would be sustained upon examination by the taxing authorities, while others are subject to uncertainty about the merits of the position taken or the amount of the position that would be ultimately sustained. The benefit of a tax position is recognized in the financial statements in the period during which, based on all available evidence, management believes it is more likely than not that the position will be sustained upon examination, including the resolution of appeals or litigation processes, if any. Tax positions taken are not offset or aggregated with other positions. Tax positions that meet the more-likely-than-not recognition threshold are measured as the largest amount of tax benefit that is more than 50% likely of being realized upon settlement with the applicable taxing authority. The portion of the benefits associated with tax positions taken that exceeds the amount measured as described above is reflected as a liability for unrecognized tax benefits in the accompanying balance sheet along with any associated interest and penalties that would be payable to the taxing authorities upon examination. As of December 31, 2023, and December 31, 2022, there were no such liabilities recorded.

Interest and penalties associated with unrecognized tax benefits, if any, would be classified as additional income taxes in the statement of income.

Comprehensive income – Accounting principles generally require that recognized revenue, expenses, gains and losses be included in net income. Although, certain changes in assets and liabilities, such as unrealized gains and losses on available for sale securities, are reported as a separate component of the equity section of the balance sheet, such items, along with net income, are components of comprehensive income.

Stock compensation plans – Stock compensation accounting guidance (FASB ASC 718, “Compensation – Stock Compensation”) requires that the compensation cost relating to share-based payment transactions be recognized in financial statements. That cost will be measured based on the grant date fair value of the equity or liability instruments issued.