CADL US Equity☆

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes and other financial information included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Some of the information contained in this discussion and analysis contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. You should review the section titled “Risk factors” in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for a discussion of important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from the results described below.

Overview

We are a clinical stage biopharmaceutical company focused on developing off-the-shelf viral immunotherapies that elicit an individualized, systemic anti-tumor immune response to help patients fight cancer. Our engineered viruses are designed to induce a systemic anti-tumor response due to induction of immunogenic cell death within the tumor microenvironment, thus releasing tumor neo-antigens and creating a pro-inflammatory microenvironment at the site of injection. This is intended to lead to in-situ vaccination against the injected tumor and uninjected distant metastases. Our biological multimodal immunotherapy approach utilizes intratumoral administration of genetically engineered viruses to induce tumor cell death and elicit a systemic anti-tumor response. Local delivery enables us to achieve these effects while aiming to minimize systemic toxicity. The immune cells induced by these viral immunotherapies are believed to target patients’ specific tumor antigens, potentially improving responses in immunologically “hot” tumors while at the same time infiltrating the tumor microenvironment, transforming non-inflamed “cold” tumors with limited immune response into “hot” tumors. While our product candidates are administered directly into the tumor, we have observed systemic immune response in our preclinical studies and clinical trials that may indicate the potential of our product candidates to induce systemic immune response against distal, uninjected tumors, also known as an “abscopal” effect.

We believe viral immunotherapy is among the most promising cancer treatment modalities today. Our goal is to further improve patient outcomes through viral immunotherapies by selecting the optimal vector, specific transgenes and clinical indications for each tumor type while optimizing product candidate attributes, such as high-titer formulation, intratumoral administration to induce systemic anti-tumor immunity, and storage conditions that could potentially lower logistical barriers for patients and clinicians.

We have established two clinical off-the-shelf viral immunotherapy platforms based on novel, genetically modified adenovirus and herpes simplex virus (HSV) constructs, respectively.

Our most advanced product candidate, CAN-2409, is an off-the-shelf adenovirus product candidate which is administered in conjunction with the prodrug valacyclovir, that has generated promising clinical activity across a range of solid tumor indications. CAN-2409 is currently being studied in the following ongoing clinical trials:

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Prostate Cancer

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A pivotal phase 3 randomized, triple-blinded and placebo-controlled clinical trial in the United States under a Special Protocol Assessment (SPA), with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluating patients with newly diagnosed, localized prostate cancer who have an intermediate or high-risk for progression. The FDA previously granted fast track designation for the use of CAN-2409 for the treatment of localized, primary prostate cancer in combination with radiation therapy to improve the local control rate. We completed enrollment of this trial in September 2021.

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In December 2024, we announced positive topline data from our phase 3 clinical trial. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial enrolled 745 patients (intent to treat population (ITT)) to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of CAN-2409 plus prodrug (valacyclovir) viral immunotherapy in combination with standard of care (SoC) external beam radiation therapy to improve disease-free survival (DFS) in patients with intermediate-to-high-risk, localized prostate cancer. Patients were randomized 2:1 (496 in CAN-2409+prodrug and 249 in placebo (PBO) +prodrug). Both arms received standard of care external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) +/- short course androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) (<6 months) and were stratified by NCCN risk group and ADT use. Three intraprostatic injections of CAN-2409 (5x10 11v/2mL) or PBO were administered, each followed by 14 days of prodrug.

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The study met its primary endpoint, demonstrating a statistically significant improvement in disease-free survival compared to the control arm. Key topline results include:

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Statistically significant improvement in DFS for CAN-2409 plus radiation therapy (n=496) vs. radiation therapy alone (n=249). Treatment with CAN-2409 reduced the risk of prostate cancer recurrence or death by 30%. Median DFS was not reached for the CAN-2409 treatment arm vs. 86.1 months in the PBO arm (p=0.0155, HR 0.7, 95% CI 0.52 to 0.94)

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Prostate cancer specific DFS (exclusion of non-prostate cancer related deaths) demonstrated a greater effect with a 38% decreased risk in the CAN-2409 arm vs. PBO (p=0.0046; HR 0.62, 95% CI 0.44 to 0.87)

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DFS improvement was observed both in patients receiving short-term ADT and in patients not receiving ADT

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Significant increase in the proportion of patients achieving a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) nadir (<0.2 ng/ml) was observed in the treatment arm compared to the placebo control arm (67.1% vs. 58.6%, respectively; p=0.0164)

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CAN-2409 induced 80.4% pathological complete responses in the 2-year post-treatment biopsies compared to 63.6% observed in the control arm (p=0.0015)

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The median follow-up time for the recruited population was 50.3 months. The primary outcome measure, DFS, included the evaluation of post-treatment biopsies, performed at two years from the end of radiation, for the presence of tumor recurrence. Local or systemic recurrence and death from any cause were also part of the primary endpoint.

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CAN-2409 was generally well tolerated, with no new safety signals identified. The most common CAN-2409-related adverse events were flu-like symptoms, fever and chills, which were generally mild to moderate in severity and self-limited.

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Based on these results, we intend to initiate discussions with the FDA regarding the regulatory pathway for CAN-2409 in intermediate-to-high-risk localized prostate cancer, and we anticipate submitting a biologics license application for CAN-2409 in the fourth quarter of 2026.

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A phase 2 randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in the United States evaluating patients with low-to-intermediate risk, localized prostate cancer undergoing active surveillance. We completed enrollment of this trial in May 2019.

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In December 2024, we also reported that the phase 2b clinical trial of monotherapy CAN-2409 in 190 patients with low-to-intermediate risk, localized prostate cancer undergoing active surveillance showed numerical improvement in time to radical treatment and the percentage of patients achieving negative (prostate cancer-free) biopsies at 1-year post-treatment. However, these differences did not reach statistical significance. CAN-2409 was generally well tolerated, with no new safety signals identified. The most common CAN-2409-related adverse events were flu-like symptoms, fever and chills, which were generally mild to moderate in severity and self-limited.

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Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

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An open-label phase 2 clinical trial in the United States evaluating CAN-2409 plus valacyclovir in combination with continued PD-(L)1 checkpoint inhibitors in patients with stage III/IV NSCLC who have inadequate response to front line PD-(L)1 checkpoint inhibitor treatments. In April 2023, we announced that the FDA granted fast track designation for CAN-2409 plus valacyclovir in combination with pembrolizumab in order to improve survival or delay progression in patients with stage III (not candidates for curative intent) or stage IV NSCLC, who are resistant to first line PD-(L)1 inhibitor therapy and who do not have activating molecular driver mutations or have progressed on directed molecular therapy. These patients historically have had an expected median overall survival (mOS) of <12 months when treated with SoC chemotherapy (Reckamp K et al. J Clin Onc 2022;40:2295-2306). The aim of the CAN-2409 immunotherapy antitumor strategy is to raise the tail on the survival curve by increasing the number of long survivors beyond 12 months in patients treated with two CAN-2409 injections.

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In May 2024, we announced topline data that showed prolonged overall survival in our phase 2 clinical trial of CAN-2409 plus valacyclovir, together with immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy in patients with Stage III/IV NSCLC inadequately responding to ICI [anti-PD-(L)1] therapy (as of an April 1, 2024 data cut-off):

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mOS of 20.6 months was observed following two administrations of CAN-2409 plus valacyclovir in NSCLC patients with progressive disease despite ICI therapy, compared to published results of mOS of 11.6 months observed with SoC docetaxel-based chemotherapy in a similar patient population (Reckamp K et al. J Clin Onc 2022;40:2295-2306). Improved mOS was observed in both PD-L1 negative and PD-L1 positive tumors in patients with progressive disease (N=37 patients in cohort 2 for which PD-L1 status at baseline was available). mOS of 22.0 months was observed across all patients (n=46) who had an inadequate response to ICI and who received two administrations of CAN-2409.

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Treatment with CAN-2409 resulted in systemic activation of the immune response, including increased numbers of effector and cytotoxic T cells as well as elevated levels of inflammatory soluble mediators.

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Activation of the systemic immune response was associated with shrinkage of uninjected lesions (abscopal response). 71.4% of patients with metastatic disease and at least one uninjected tumor (n=35) experienced a beneficial effect from CAN-2409 treatment on both injected and uninjected tumors. When using a threshold of >5% decrease, more than 60% of patients still showed an abscopal response.

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As of the cut-off date, treatment with CAN-2409 in NSCLC continued to exhibit a generally favorable safety and tolerability profile. There were no dose-limiting toxicities or grade 4 or higher treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs); the majority of TRAEs were grade 1 or 2, and there were three grade 3 TRAEs (1 pyrexia, 2 pneumonitis).

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We expect to present updated overall survival data for CAN-2409 in NSCLC in the first quarter of 2025.

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Pancreatic Cancer

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We initiated a randomized phase 2 clinical trial in the United States and Mexico evaluating the activity of CAN-2409 in borderline resectable and locally advanced pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Initial positive phase 2 data revealed notable clinical improvements in patients with borderline resectable PDAC following CAN-2409 plus prodrug together with SoC chemoradiation. In March 2023, in connection with our cost management and dynamic portfolio management initiatives, we elected to pause new enrollment in this randomized phase 2 clinical trial, subject to additional funding. Despite the pause in new patient enrollment, we presented initial positive interim overall survival and immunological biomarker clinical data at the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) Annual Meeting in the fourth quarter of 2023. In December 2023, we announced that the FDA granted fast track designation for CAN-2409 plus valacyclovir for the treatment of patients with PDAC to improve overall survival. In April 2024, we announced updated positive overall survival data and also announced that the FDA has granted orphan drug designation for CAN-2409 for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

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The following data were disclosed as of the March 29, 2024 data cutoff:

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Clinical data highlights:

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Prolonged and sustained survival was observed after experimental treatment with CAN-2409 in patients with borderline resectable PDAC.

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Estimated mOS was 28.8 months in the CAN-2409 group versus 12.5 months in the control group.

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At 24 months, a survival rate of 71.4% was observed in patients receiving CAN-2409 at the time of SoC chemoradiation and surgery, versus only 16.7% in the control group. At 36 months, a survival rate of 47.6% was estimated in patients who received CAN-2409 versus only 16.7% in the control group.

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Importantly, 4 out of 7 patients who received CAN-2409 were still alive at the time of data cutoff, with 2 patients surviving more than 50.0 months from enrollment. Only 1 out of 6 patients, randomized to control SoC chemotherapy alone, remained alive at data cutoff (alive at 50.6 months).

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Biomarker data analysis demonstrated:

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Consistent and robust activation of immune response after dosing with CAN-2409.

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In pancreatic tissue of patients treated with CAN-2409 plus prodrug together with SoC (but not SoC alone), dense aggregates of CD8+ granzyme B positive cytotoxic T cells, dendritic cells, and B cells were observed within the tumor microenvironment. These lymphocyte aggregates resemble tertiary lymphoid structures, whose formation in solid tumors is known to be associated with improved prognosis and better response to therapy.

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Increased levels of soluble granzymes B and H as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IFN-γ, were observed in peripheral blood after CAN-2409 treatment, but not after SoC.

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Safety analysis:

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Addition of CAN-2409 regimen to SoC was generally well tolerated, with no dose-limiting toxicities, including no cases of pancreatitis.

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In February 2025, we announced the final analysis of this phase 2 clinical trial in borderline resectable PDAC:

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Estimated median overall survival after enrollment was 31.4 months in the CAN-2409 group versus only 12.5 months in the control group.

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Importantly, 3 out of 7 patients who received CAN-2409 were still alive at the time of data cut-off (February 20, 2025) with survival of 66.0, 63.6, and 35.8 months after enrollment; survival from the time of diagnosis was 73.5, 68.8 and 41.3 months for these patients. In contrast, only one out of 6 patients randomized to SoC chemotherapy arm remained alive at the data cutoff; histologic analysis at resection showed intraepithelial neoplasia associated with improved prognosis in this patient.

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Median survival post-progression was 21.2 months in CAN-2409 patients (vs. 7.2 months on the control arm).

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Based on these promising findings, the Company has decided to prepare for a larger, late-stage, randomized controlled clinical trial of CAN-2409 in PDAC.

Our lead HSV-based product candidate, CAN-3110, is currently in an ongoing investigator-sponsored phase 1b clinical trial in our initial target indication of recurrent high-grade glioma (HGG). Patients recruited in this study have previously failed SoC treatment and have a poor prognosis (expected overall survival < 6-9 months). In February 2024, we announced that the FDA granted fast track designation for CAN-3110 for the treatment of patients with recurrent HGG to improve overall survival. In May 2024, we also announced that the FDA granted orphan drug designation for CAN-3110 for the treatment of recurrent HGG.

Initial overall survival data from this clinical trial was presented in an oral presentation at the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) Annual Meeting in June 2021, and additional biomarker data was reported in an oral presentation at the Society for Neuro-Oncology Annual Meeting in November 2021. During our Research and Development Day in December 2022, we presented updated data demonstrating that a single administration of CAN-3110 was well tolerated with no observed dose-limiting toxicity and achieved 11.6 months mOS. Furthermore, we showed evidence of persistent herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) antigen and HSV-1 replication consistent with the mechanism of action​ of CAN-3110 as well as evidence of robust immune activation in the tumor microenvironment and in the peripheral blood of treated patients​. In May 2023, we presented clinical and biomarker data from this ongoing clinical trial in an oral presentation at the American Society of Gene & Cell Therapy (ASGCT) Annual Meeting where we reported mOS in arm A (n=41) ongoing at 11.8 months and mOS in arm B (n=9) ongoing at 12.0 months as of the April 20, 2023 data cutoff. The safety and tolerability data highlighted the absence of dose-limiting toxicities in both arm A and arm B.

In October 2023, we jointly published an article in Nature that reported extended survival associated with immune activation in patients with recurrent HGG treated with CAN-3110. Notably, new data reported an increased survival in the 66% of patients with positivity for anti-HSV1 antibodies (mOS of 14.2 months). Immune status was positively associated with survival both in patients with pre-existing HSV1 antibodies (pre-treatment) and in 33% of patients who, while negative at baseline, developed anti-HSV1 antibodies after a single injection of CAN-3110. Clinical responses were observed in both injected and uninjected lesions in patients with multifocal disease. Significant tumor responses in both arm A and arm B were observed, with continued reduction in tumor volume in a patient in arm B approximately one year after CAN-3110 treatment. Clinical response for this patient continues as of February 2025 without additional treatment. Analysis of post-treatment samples demonstrated evidence of persistent HSV antigen expression and replication in both injected and uninjected tumor tissue associated with CD8+ T cell infiltration. The extent of immune activation, measured by gene profiling and quantification of immune cells in post-treatment specimens, was associated with the presence of anti-HSV1 antibodies and survival. Survival was also associated with the diversity of the T cell repertoire in circulating T cells, suggesting that patients who were able to mount a diverse immune response against the virus and tumor antigens released during the oncolytic process after CAN-3110 administration, had improved survival.

We are conducting an extension of the clinical trial known as arm C, in which patients with recurrent HGG will receive a repeat dosing regimen of CAN-3110 (up to six injections over four months). Clinical data from arm C will help evaluate whether multiple injections could further improve survival. This clinical trial extension is supported by the Break Through Cancer foundation. As of February 2025, we have dosed seven patients with multiple injections of CAN-3110 (up to six injections over a period of four months). In June 2024, a poster presentation at the ASCO Annual Meeting demonstrated that multiple intratumoral injections of CAN-3110 were feasible and well tolerated with no dose-limiting

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toxicities or severe adverse events observed in the first six patients treated in arm C. More than 300 core biopsies were obtained from these patients, across the planned dose ranging time points, which were processed for “-omic” analysis, including single-cell RNA sequencing and cell profiling. In October 2024, during the 16th Annual International Oncolytic Virotherapy Conference (IOVC), we announced clinical activity and biomarker data for arm C. The principal investigator of the study reported ongoing improved survival compared to historical controls in patients treated with multiple injections of CAN-3110, with 3 out of 6 patients with recurrent HGG (recurrent glioblastoma) still alive more than one year (12.2, 13.0, and 18.7 months, respectively) after initiation of experimental treatment with CAN-3110. The data also showed discrepancies between imaging and histologic findings. Post treatment longitudinal biopsies demonstrated near absence of tumor cells alongside dense lymphocyte infiltrates especially in patients with enhancement on post-treatment MRI scans, suggesting the presence of radiologic pseudo-progression after treatment with CAN-3110. This data cautions against the evaluation of progression by imaging, restating the importance of survival as the primary endpoint for viral immunotherapy trials. We expect to present initial median overall survival data for the repeat dosing cohort in the fourth quarter of 2025.

In November 2024, during the SITC 2024 Annual Meeting, we presented data demonstrating the antitumor activity of CAN-3110 in preclinical models of melanoma, a tumor characterized by high Nestin expression, frequent loss-of-function in CDKN2A, and alterations in the Ras-Raf signaling pathway. This data supports the rationale to expand the evaluation of CAN-3110 into tumors beyond recurrent HGG, creating a potential pipeline in a product.

We are also designing additional novel viral immunotherapy candidates using our proprietary enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, a systematic, iterative HSV-based discovery platform leveraging human biology and advanced analytics to create new viral immunotherapy candidates for solid tumors. In October 2022, we entered into a collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania (UPenn) Center for Cellular Immunotherapies to study the impact of novel viral immunotherapy candidates based on Candel's enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform to strengthen the activity of UPenn’s investigational CAR-T cell therapies in difficult to treat solid tumors.

In November 2023, during the SITC 2023 Annual Meeting, we presented two posters describing the key elements of the platform and the development of the first experimental agent from the enLIGHTEN Discovery Platform. The first agent based on enLIGHTENTM, Alpha-201 Macro1, is an investigational viral immunotherapy designed to interfere with the CD47/SIRPα pathway and activate innate immune surveillance. Results demonstrated monotherapy activity of this agent following local administration in a preclinical model of lung and breast cancer. Additional preclinical data presented at SITC confirmed the capability of the enLIGHTENTM Advanced Analytics suite to predict optimal gene payload combinations to arm viral vectors, enabling the design of potential combination therapeutics to overcome tumor resistance especially in cancers resistant to immune checkpoint inhibitor treatment.

In April 2024, during the American Association for Cancer Research's 2024 Annual Meeting, we presented data on a second preclinical candidate from the enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, a first-in-class multimodal immunotherapy for induction of tertiary lymphoid structures, being developed as a novel therapeutic strategy for solid tumors. Data presented included preclinical in vivo evidence of monotherapy activity of this preclinical candidate as well as activity when administered in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (improved survival as compared to PD-1 only treated mice).

In October 2024, during the 16th Annual IOVC, we presented data on a novel biological multimodal therapeutic from the enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, the third preclinical candidate, encoding IL-12 and IL-15. Data included the ability of this asset to induce expansion and activation of natural killer and CD8+ T cells, resulting in significant inhibition of tumor growth and tumor regression in two different tumor models.

We currently own development and commercialization rights for all our programs in major markets, including the United States, Europe and Asia, allowing us to control development and seek approval in those areas as we prepare our commercialization efforts.

We were incorporated in Delaware in June 2003 as Advantagene, Inc. (Advantagene). In December 2019, Advantagene licensed substantially all the assets of Periphagen, a company focused on engineering HSV as a gene therapy vector, and in September 2020, licensed CAN-3110 from Mass General Brigham (MGB). In December 2020, we formally changed our name from Advantagene to Candel Therapeutics, Inc. We completed our initial public offering in July 2021. On August 5, 2022, we filed a shelf registration statement on Form S-3 (as amended, the Shelf) with the SEC, which covers the offering, issuance and sale by us of up to an aggregate of $200.0 million of our common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants and/or units of any combination thereof. We simultaneously entered into a sales agreement with Jefferies LLC, as sales agent, to provide for the issuance and sale by us of up to $75.0 million of our common stock from time to time in “at-the-market” offerings under the Shelf (the ATM Program). The Shelf was declared effective by the SEC on August 12, 2022. As of March 6, 2025, we have sold and issued 2,976,391 shares of common stock under the ATM Program, with total net proceeds of $16.2 million. On December 16, 2024, we issued and sold 12,000,001 shares of common stock at a price to the public of $6.00 per share and pre-funded warrants to purchase up to an aggregate of 3,333,333 shares of common stock at a price to the public of $5.99 per pre-funded

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warrant to purchase one share of the common stock for aggregate gross proceeds of approximately $92.0 million (the 2024 Follow-On Offering). We received approximately $85.9 million in net proceeds from the 2024 Follow-On Offering after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and offering expenses.

Our cash and cash equivalents were $102.7 million as of December 31, 2024, which we believe will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2027.

Collaborations

We are a party to a number of license and collaboration agreements under which we license patents, patent applications and other intellectual property to and from third parties.

Periphagen. On December 9, 2019, we entered into a series of agreements, including an exclusive license agreement, a novation agreement, an equipment purchase agreement and an intellectual property assignment agreement, collectively the Periphagen Agreements, with Periphagen, whereby we acquired certain assets and licensed certain rights (including specified patent rights and know-how, or the Licensed IP Rights) of Periphagen, primarily consisting of exclusive rights to their technology platform and a portfolio of preclinical, development stage virus vectors. The primary classes of assets are HSV-derived assets expressing neurotrophin-3 (or NT-3 Assets) and other HSV-derived assets (Gene Transfer Neuro-Assets). Under the license agreement, Periphagen granted us a worldwide exclusive license with the right to grant sublicenses through multiple tiers under the Licensed IP Rights to conduct research and to develop, make, have made, use, have used, offer for sale, have sold, export and import products incorporating the Licensed IP Rights in all fields of use except the treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of nononcologic skin diseases and conditions (including use as an aesthetic).

On June 7, 2023, we entered into an amendment to the exclusive license agreement. Under the amendment, our rights to the NT-3 Assets and Gene Transfer Neuro-Assets reverted to Periphagen, and we no longer have any obligations (including without limitation diligence obligations and payment obligations) with respect to the NT-3 Assets or Gene Transfer Neuro-Assets. With respect to the remaining Licensed IP Rights, we retained a worldwide exclusive license with the right to grant sublicenses through multiple tiers under the Licensed IP Rights to conduct research and to develop, make, have made, use, have used, offer for sale, have sold, export and import products incorporating the Licensed IP Rights in field of the treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of oncologic diseases and conditions.

Mass General Brigham (MGB). On January 20, 2018, we entered into an exclusive option agreement (the Option Agreement) with MGB. Pursuant to the Option Agreement, we obtained the exclusive right from MGB to negotiate a world-wide, royalty-bearing license to develop and commercialize products covered by certain MGB patents, including those patents covering CAN-3110, in the field of gene therapy and oncolytic vector therapy for the treatment or prevention of cancerous tumors in humans or animals, as such field is further detailed in the Option Agreement (the Licensed Field). In consideration for MGB’s granting of the exclusive option, we paid MGB a non-refundable fee of $40,000.

Under the Option Agreement, we were required to use reasonable efforts to enter into a clinical trial agreement with MGB. We entered into such clinical trial agreement with MGB (MGB Clinical Trial Agreement) on June 19, 2018. Under the MGB Clinical Trial Agreement, we have committed to remitting financial support for the performance of a specified phase 1 clinical trial by MGB pursuant to a protocol summary contained in the Option Agreement.

On September 15, 2020, we exercised our option and entered into an exclusive patent license agreement with MGB (the MGB License Agreement). Under the MGB License Agreement, MGB granted to us (a) an exclusive, royalty-bearing license under certain of MGB’s patents to make, have made, use, have used, sell and have sold certain products covered by such licensed patents (Licensed Products) and otherwise practice processes covered by such licensed patents (Licensed Processes); and (b) a non-exclusive, royalty-bearing license under certain other of MGB’s patents to make, have made, use, have used, sell and have sold Licensed Products, but not to sell or have sold Licensed Processes. The foregoing rights are sublicensable, subject to sublicensing terms set forth in the MGB License Agreement. In connection with executing the MGB License Agreement, we paid a license issue fee and also agreed to reimburse MGB for all reasonable fees and expenses MGB had incurred and will incur for the preparation, filing, prosecution and maintenance of the licensed patent rights.

Ventagen. On March 1, 2014, we entered into an exclusive license agreement ( the Ventagen Agreement) with Ventagen, a related party. The Ventagen Agreement provides Ventagen an exclusive license, with rights to grant sublicense (subject to certain terms and conditions) under any worldwide patent rights and know-how owned or controlled by us during the term of the Ventagen Agreement which cover applicable technology utilizing the delivery method of the herpes derived TK protein to tumors or other tissues via a viral vector (as further specified therein), to research, use, have used, import, have imported, export, have exported, offer for sale, have sold, sell, distribute and market certain products for the prevention or treatment of cancer in humans and any use in animals (or the Field of Use), or the Licensed Products, for commercial sale and distribution within Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El

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Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia and Bolivia. Ventagen is 49.5% owned by certain of our stockholders.

Corporate Restructuring

In November 2023, our board of directors authorized a restructuring plan to focus on key clinical readouts for CAN-2409 and continuation and expansion of development of CAN-3110 as well as the enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, which resulted in a reduction of our workforce by approximately 45%. Each affected employee’s separation occurred in December 2023. As a result, we incurred costs of $0.7 million related to severance benefits for the affected employees, including severance payments and limited reimbursement of medical insurance premiums. The restructuring plan was completed in the first quarter of 2024 when the final severance payments of $46,000 were made.

Components of Our Results of Operations

Revenue

To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and do not expect to generate any revenue from sales of products in the foreseeable future.

Operating Expenses

Our operating expenses since inception have consisted solely of research and development costs and general and administrative costs.

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred for our product development activities for our two primary drug candidates, CAN-2409 and CAN-3110. We expense research and development costs as incurred. These include the following:

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employee-related costs, including salaries, benefits and stock-based compensation expense, for personnel engaged in research, development and clinical management functions;

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expenses incurred under agreements with third party clinical sites for the treatment and follow-up for patients enrolled in our clinical trials;

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the cost of acquiring and manufacturing preclinical study materials, including manufacturing registration and validation batches;

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payments made under third-party licensing agreements;

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costs incurred to develop the manufacturing process and capabilities for future clinical trials and commercialization. Our clinical trial material for use in our existing clinical trials was manufactured in prior years;

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costs related to compliance with quality and regulatory requirements;

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costs of outside consultants, primarily related to regulatory; and

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facility-related expenses, which include direct depreciation costs and expenses for rent and maintenance of facilities and insurance, and other operating costs if specifically identifiable to research and development activities.

We expect that our research and development expenses will continue to increase substantially for the foreseeable future and will comprise a larger percentage of our total expenses as we complete our clinical trials and commence additional clinical trials, continue to discover and develop additional product candidates and develop and scale our manufacturing capabilities. Product candidates in later stages of clinical development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages of clinical development, primarily due to increased scale and duration of later stage clinical trials.

We cannot determine with certainty the duration and costs of future clinical trials of CAN-2409 and CAN-3110 or any other product candidate we may develop or if, when, or to what extent we will generate revenue from the commercialization and sale of any product candidate for which we obtain marketing approval. At this time, we cannot accurately estimate or know the nature, timing and costs of the efforts that will be necessary to complete the clinical development of, or obtain regulatory approval for, any of our current or future product candidates. The duration, costs,

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and timing of clinical trials and development of CAN-2409 and CAN-3110 and any other product candidate we may develop will depend on a variety of factors, including:

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the scope, rate of progress, expense and results of clinical trials;

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our successful enrollment in and completion of clinical trials, including our ability to generate positive data from any such trials;

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our ability to add and retain key research and development personnel;

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the actual probability of success for our product candidates, including their safety and efficacy, early clinical data, competition, manufacturing capability, and commercial viability;

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significant and changing government regulation and regulatory guidance;

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the timing and receipt of any marketing approvals;

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the progress of the development efforts of parties with whom we may enter into collaboration agreements, and the terms and timing of any additional collaboration agreements, license or other arrangement, including the timing of any payments thereunder;

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our ability to enter into agreements with contract development and manufacturing organizations (CDMOs) for the development, clinical manufacture and commercial manufacture of our product candidates CAN-2409 and CAN-3110

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costs related to manufacturing of our product candidates or to account for any future changes in our manufacturing plans;

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our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates, if and when approved;

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raising additional funds necessary to complete clinical development of our product candidates;

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our ability to obtain and maintain third-party insurance coverage and adequate reimbursement for our product candidates, if and when approved;

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the acceptance of our product candidates, if approved, by patients, the medical community and third-party payors;

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effectively competing with other products if our product candidates are approved;

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the impact of any business interruptions to our operations, including the timing and enrollment of patients in our planned clinical trials, or to those of our manufacturers, suppliers, or other vendors resulting from any future public health crisis or ongoing geopolitical conflicts and related global economic sanctions;

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our ability to maintain a continued acceptable safety profile for our therapies following approval;

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our ability to obtain and maintain patents, trade secret and other intellectual property protection and regulatory exclusivity for our product candidates, both in the United States and internationally; and

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the expense of filing, prosecuting, defending and enforcing any patent claims and other intellectual property rights.

A change in the outcome of any of these variables with respect to the development of a product candidate could significantly change the costs and timing associated with the development of that product candidate. We may never succeed in obtaining regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and other related costs, including stock-based compensation, for personnel in our executive, finance, business development, and administrative functions. General and administrative expenses also include legal fees relating to intellectual property and corporate matters; professional fees for accounting, auditing, tax and consulting services; insurance costs including directors and officers insurance; travel expenses; and facility-related expenses, which include direct depreciation costs and expenses for rent and maintenance of facilities, and other operating costs that are not specifically attributable to research and development activities.

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We expect that our general and administrative expenses will increase in the future as we increase our personnel headcount to support our continued clinical development and manufacturing activities and to meet the requirements of a public company. We expect to incur increased expenses associated with being a public company, including costs of accounting, audit, legal, regulatory, and tax-related services associated with maintaining compliance with exchange listing and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) requirements; director and officer insurance costs; and investor and public relations costs.

Interest Income

Interest income primarily consists of amounts earned on investment of cash equivalents.

Interest Expense

Interest expense primarily consists of interest expense on our debt under our Loan Agreement with Silicon Valley Bank (SVB).

Change in Fair Value of Warrant Liability

In connection with the November 13, 2018 issuance of Series B preferred stock we issued warrants to the purchasers of the Series B preferred stock, to purchase up to 7,344,968 shares of our common stock with an exercise price of $6.81 per share. We also issued a warrant to the NC Incorporated Ohio Trust, an irrevocable trust funded by us, to purchase 162,740 shares of our common stock, $0.01 par value, at an exercise price of $1.46 per share, subject to adjustments as specified in the warrant agreement (the NC Ohio Warrants). Certain of those warrants are recorded as a liability on our balance sheet. The warrants recorded as a liability are remeasured to their fair value at each reporting date with changes in the fair value recognized as a component of other income (expense), net in the consolidated statements of operations. We will continue to recognize changes in the fair value of the warrants until they are exercised, expire or qualify for equity classification. The fair value of the warrants is determined based on significant inputs not observable in the market. The fair value of the warrants uses various valuation methods, including the Monte Carlo method, the option-pricing method, probability-weighted expected return and the hybrid method, all of which incorporate assumptions and estimates, to value the common stock warrants. The hybrid method is often used when a company is expecting a liquidity event in the near future and is a combination of the option-pricing and probability-weighted expected return methods. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value per share of the underlying shares of common stock, risk-free interest rate, expected dividend yield, and the remaining contractual term of the warrants.

Income Taxes

Since our inception, we have generated cumulative federal and state net operating loss and research and development credit carryforwards for which we have not recorded any net tax benefit due to uncertainty around utilizing these tax attributes within their respective carryforward periods.

As of December 31, 2024, we had federal net operating loss carryforwards (NOLs) of approximately $111.6 million and state NOLs of approximately $101.9 million which may be available to offset future taxable income. Our federal NOLs include $8.8 million available to reduce future taxable income through 2037 and approximately $102.8 million of NOLs that do not expire and are available to reduce future taxable income indefinitely. The state NOLs are available to offset future taxable income through 2033. As of December 31, 2024, we also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $5.0 million and $2.4 million, respectively, which are available to offset federal and state tax liabilities through 2043 and 2038, respectively.

Realization of future tax benefits is dependent on many factors, including our ability to generate taxable income within the NOL period. Our management has evaluated the positive and negative evidence bearing upon the realizability of our deferred tax assets, which are comprised principally of net operating loss carryforwards and certain tax credits.

Management has considered our history of cumulative net losses incurred since inception, as well as our lack of product revenue since inception, and has determined that it is more likely than not that we will not realize the benefits of our deferred tax assets. As a result, a full valuation allowance has been established at December 31, 2024.

NOL and tax credit carryforwards may become subject to an annual limitation in the event of certain cumulative changes in the ownership interest of significant stockholders over a three-year period in excess of 50%, as provided under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the Code), as well as under similar state provisions. These ownership changes may limit the amount of NOLs that can be utilized annually to offset future taxable income. In general, an ownership change, as defined under Section 382 of the Code (Section 382), results from transactions increasing the ownership of certain stockholders or public groups in the stock of a corporation by more than 50% over a three-year period. We have completed several financings and not yet determined if such a limitation would be placed against our NOL. We will make such a determination prior to the utilization of any NOL.

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Results of Operations

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023 (in thousands):

YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,

Operating expenses:

Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2024 and 2023

Research and Development Expenses

The following table summarizes our research and development expenses for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023 (in thousands):

YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, INCREASE

Depreciation, impairment, and loss on sale of fixed assets 1,020 1,419 (399 )

Research and development expenses decreased $5.2 million from $24.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 to $19.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. The decrease was primarily attributable to a $2.7 million decrease in clinical development costs driven by decreased regulatory, manufacturing and clinical trial costs for CAN-2409 programs, a $1.7 million decrease in employee-related expenses due to the corporate restructuring in the fourth quarter of 2023, and a $0.4 million decrease in depreciation, impairment, and loss on the sale of fixed assets.

General and Administrative Expenses

The following table summarizes our general and administrative expenses for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023 (in thousands):

YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, INCREASE

General and administrative expenses increased $0.2 million from $13.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 to $14.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. The increase was primarily attributable to a $1.6 million increase in professional and consulting fees. The increase was partially offset by a $0.7 million decrease in

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employee-related expenses due to the corporate restructuring in the fourth quarter of 2023, and a $0.4 million decrease in the cost of directors and officers insurance.

Interest Income

Interest income was $1.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, compared to $2.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, and primarily represents earnings on our cash equivalents. The decrease in interest income is the result of interest being generated on a lower cash equivalents balance for most of the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023.

Interest Expense

Interest expense was $2.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, compared to $2.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, and represents interest expense on our outstanding debt obligations.

Change in Fair Value of Warrant Liability

The change in fair value of our warrant liability was an increase in the fair value of $20.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2024, compared to a decrease in the fair value of $1.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. The change in the fair value of the warrant liability is primarily driven by changes in the underlying value of our stock price.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Since our inception, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and have incurred significant operating losses. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future as we advance the clinical development of our product candidates. We expect that our research and development and general and administrative costs will continue to increase significantly, including in connection with conducting clinical trials for our product candidates, developing our manufacturing capabilities which may include the cost of establishing a relationship with contract manufacturers to support commercial launch of our product candidate CAN-2409 and costs associated with equipping our laboratory and manufacturing facility to support clinical trials and commercialization and providing general and administrative support for our operations, including the cost associated with operating as a public company. As a result, we will need additional capital to fund our operations, which we may obtain from additional equity or debt financings, collaborations, licensing arrangements or other sources. As of December 31, 2024, we had cash and cash equivalents of $102.7 million. Based on current plans and assumptions, we expect that our existing cash and cash equivalents will be sufficient to fund our current operating plan into the first quarter of 2027, including the expected completion of the final overall survival phase 2a data readouts in borderline resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (“PDAC”), announced on February 25, 2025, and non-small cell lung cancer (“NSCLC”) in the first quarter of 2025 and the final overall survival readout for the ongoing Phase 1b trial in recurrent high-grade glioma with CAN-3110 in the fourth quarter of 2025. We will require additional capital to further advance development of CAN-2409 in NSCLC and PDAC or of CAN-3110 beyond the current trials and to complete the clinical development of, or commercialize, any of our product candidates or programs.

We do not currently have any approved products and have never generated any revenue from product sales. We have financed our operations primarily through proceeds from government grants and proceeds from the sale of convertible notes, common stock, and our convertible preferred stock. As of December 31, 2024, we have raised approximately $270.9 million of gross proceeds from such transactions, including $15.6 million of government grants, $66.1 million from the sale of convertible preferred stock, $187.4 million from the sale of our common stock and accompanying pre-funded warrants, and $1.8 million from stock option exercises. Our cash and cash equivalents totaled $102.7 million as of December 31, 2024. We had $12.5 million of debt as of December 31, 2024. As of December 31, 2024, we have raised $15.8 million of net proceeds under the ATM Program (as defined below). Subsequent to December 31, 2024 and through March 6, 2025, we raised an additional $0.4 million of net proceeds under the ATM Program.

On February 24, 2022, we entered into a Loan Agreement with SVB pursuant to which SVB agreed to provide term loans to us in an aggregate principal amount of $20.0 million. We borrowed $20.0 million upon entering into the Loan Agreement. The term loans are secured by substantially all of our properties, rights and assets, except for our intellectual property, which is subject to a negative pledge under the Loan Agreement.

The term loans bear interest at a floating rate per annum equal to the greater of (A) 5.75% and (B) the prime rate (as published in the money rates section of The Wall Street Journal) plus 2.50%. We are required to make monthly interest payments, and commencing on February 1, 2024, 24 consecutive installments of principal plus monthly payments of accrued interest. The term loans mature on January 1, 2026. Upon repayment in full of the term loans, we will be required to pay a final payment fee equal to 4.50% of the original principal amount of any funded term loan being repaid. The Loan Agreement permits voluntary prepayment of all, but not less than all, of the SVB term loans, subject to

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a prepayment premium of 1% to 3% based upon the timing of the prepayment. As of December 31, 2024, $11.6 million of indebtedness was outstanding under the Loan Agreement.

On August 5, 2022, we filed the Shelf with the SEC, which covers the offering, issuance and sale by us of up to an aggregate of $200.0 million of our common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants and/or units of any combination thereof. We simultaneously entered into a sales agreement with Jefferies LLC, as sales agent, to provide for the issuance and sale by us of up to $75.0 million of our common stock from time to time in “at-the-market” offerings under the ATM Program. The Shelf was declared effective by the SEC on August 12, 2022. As of March 6, 2025, we have sold and issued 2,976,391 shares of common stock under the ATM Program, with total net proceeds of $16.2 million.

In connection with the 2024 Follow-On Offering, we issued and sold 12,000,001 shares of common stock at a price to the public of $6.00 per share and pre-funded warrants to purchase up to an aggregate of 3,333,333 shares of common stock at a price to the public of $5.99 per pre-funded warrant to purchase one share of the common stock for aggregate gross proceeds of approximately $92.0 million. We received approximately $85.9 million in net proceeds from the 2024 Follow-On Offering after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and offering expenses.

As of December 31, 2024, we had an accumulated deficit of $192.2 million and have not generated any product sales. We do not know when, or if, we will generate revenue from product sales. We will not generate significant revenue from product sales unless and until we obtain regulatory approval and commercialize one of our current or future product candidates. Our primary uses of capital are, and we expect will continue to be, compensation and related expenses, third-party clinical and contract manufacturing costs, legal and other regulatory expenses, and general overhead costs. We expect that we will continue to generate losses for the foreseeable future, and we expect the losses to increase as we continue the development of, and seek regulatory approvals for, our product candidates, and begin to commercialize any approved products. We are subject to risks in the development of our products, and we may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other unknown factors that may adversely affect our business. We will require substantial additional financing to fund our operations and to continue to execute our strategy, and we will pursue a range of options to secure additional capital.

If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic alliances or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may be required to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or to grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise capital when needed or on acceptable terms, it would have a negative impact on our financial condition and we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our research, clinical trials, product development or future commercialization efforts.

Cash Flows

The following table summarizes our sources and uses of cash for the periods presented (in thousands):

YEARS ENDED DECEMBER 31,

Net cash used in operating activities $ (27,023 ) $ (34,244 )

Net cash used in investing activities (16 ) (280 )

Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 94,280 (121 )

Cash Flows for the Years Ended December 31, 2024 and 2023

Operating Activities

Net cash used in operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $27.0 million, primarily consisting of a net loss of $55.2 million as we incurred expenses associated with our clinical programs and incurred costs associated with operating as a public company. We had non-cash charges of $27.8 million primarily related to the $20.8 million change in the fair value of our warrant liability and non-cash stock-based compensation. Net cash used in operating activities was also impacted by $0.3 million in changes in operating assets and liabilities, primarily driven by an increase of $0.8 million in accrued expenses and a decrease of $0.2 million in prepaid expenses and other current assets. These changes were partially offset by a decrease of $0.5 million in lease-related liabilities and a decrease of $0.2 million in accounts payable.

Net cash used in operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2023 was $34.2 million, primarily consisting of a net loss of $37.9 million as we incurred expenses associated with our clinical programs, increased our headcount prior to the restructuring in the fourth quarter of 2023 and incurred costs associated with operating as a public company. In

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addition, we had non-cash income of $1.0 million as a result of the change in the fair value of our warrant liability. Non-cash income was partially offset by $5.2 million in non-cash charges primarily related to non-cash stock-based compensation and depreciation expense. Net cash used in operating activities was also impacted by $0.5 million in changes in operating assets and liabilities, primarily driven by a decrease of $0.5 million in lease-related liabilities and a decrease of $0.3 million in accrued expenses. These changes were partially offset by a decrease of $0.5 million in prepaid expenses and other current assets.

Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $16,000 and consisted of the purchase of fixed assets.

Net cash used in investing activities for the year ended December 31, 2023 was $0.3 million, and consisted of the purchase of fixed assets, which was partially offset by proceeds from the sale of fixed assets.

Financing Activities

Net cash provided by financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $94.3 million and consisted of $85.9 million of net proceeds from the issuance of common stock and accompanying pre-funded warrants in the 2024 Follow-On Offering, $15.8 million of net proceeds from the issuance of common stock under the ATM Program and $1.7 million of proceeds from option exercises, partially offset by $9.2 million of principal payments on our term loan with SVB.

Net cash used in financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2023 was $0.1 million and consisted of payments related to tax withholding for vested restricted stock units.

Funding Requirements

We expect our operating expenses to increase substantially in the future in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance CAN-2409 and CAN-3110 through research and development, clinical trials, and develop our manufacturing capabilities, as we research and develop additional product candidates including preclinical activities and as we prepare for potential marketing approval and potential commercialization. We also expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company.

Specifically, our costs and expenses will increase as we:

•

advance the clinical development of CAN-2409 and CAN-3110;

•

develop our manufacturing capabilities, including through relationships with contract manufacturers for potential commercial manufacturing of our product candidate CAN-2409 and the development, construction and qualification of our clinical manufacturing capabilities, internally or through CDMOs for our product candidate CAN-3110;

•

pursue preparatory activities for potential launch and commercialization for CAN-2409 in localized prostate cancer;

•

pursue the preclinical and clinical development of other product candidates using our enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, an HSV-based platform; and

•

expand our operational, financial, and management systems and increase personnel, including personnel to support our operations as a public company.

We believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents as of December 31, 2024 will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expense requirements into the first quarter of 2027. We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be incorrect, and we could utilize our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with the research, development, and commercialization of therapeutics, it is difficult to estimate with certainty the amount of our working capital requirements. Our future funding requirements will depend on many factors, including:

•

the progress, costs, and results of our clinical development and clinical trials for CAN-2409 and CAN-3110;

•

the progress, costs, and results of our additional research and preclinical development programs;

•

the costs, timing and outcome of regulatory review of our product candidates;

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•

our ability to establish and maintain collaborations on favorable terms, if at all;

•

the outcome, timing and cost of meeting regulatory requirements established by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, if applicable, for our product candidates;

•

the costs and timing of internal and external process development for our manufacturing capabilities;

•

the scope, progress, results, and costs of any product candidates that we may derive from our HSV-based platform or with collaborators;

•

the costs of preparing, filing and prosecuting patent applications, obtaining, maintaining and enforcing our intellectual property rights and defending intellectual property-related claims; hire additional personnel in research, manufacturing, and regulatory and clinical development, as well as management personnel;

•

the extent to which we in-license or acquire rights to other products, product candidates, or technologies;

•

additions or departures of key scientific or management personnel;

•

the costs and timing of future commercialization activities, including product manufacturing, marketing, sales, and distribution for any of our product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval;

•

the amount of revenue, if any, received from commercial sales of our product candidates, should any of our product candidates receive marketing approval; and

•

the costs of operating as a public company.

Until such time as we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of public or private equity or debt financings and other sources, which may include collaborations strategic alliances and licensing arrangements with third parties. We do not have any committed external source of funds. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest may be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that could adversely affect your rights as a common stockholder. Debt financing and equity financing, if available, may involve agreements that include restrictive covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends, that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business, in addition to those restrictive covenants contained in the Loan Agreement. If we raise additional funds through other sources, such as collaboration agreements, strategic alliances, licensing arrangements or marketing and distribution arrangements, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, product development, and research programs or product candidates, or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce, or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market products or product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Contractual Obligations and Commitments

Our primary contractual obligations are our facility lease, the Loan Agreement with SVB, and the Periphagen Note. The table below summarizes the contractual obligations that will become due as of December 31, 2024 (in thousands):

PAYMENTS DUE BY PERIOD

(in thousands)

TOTAL LESS THAN1 YEAR 1 TO 3YEARS 3 TO 5YEARS

(1)

Represents future minimum lease payments under our operating lease for office and laboratory space at our Needham, Massachusetts facility. Our facility lease extends to August of 2026.

(2)

Represents future principal, interest payments, and the final payment fee on our Loan Agreement with SVB, which matures on January 1, 2026.

(3)

Represents a $1.0 million promissory note plus interest under the terms of our asset purchase agreements with Periphagen, Inc. The promissory note is due upon maturity in November 2027.

See our consolidated financial statements and related footnotes elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for additional information on these agreements.

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We also enter into contracts in the normal course of business with hospitals, clinics, universities, and other third parties for clinical trials and testing and with construction contractors and process developers for the construction of our manufacturing facility. These contracts do not contain minimum purchase commitments and are cancelable by us upon prior written notice. Payments due upon cancelation consist only of payments for services provided or expenses incurred, including noncancelable obligations of our service providers, up to the date of cancelation. These payments are not included in the table above as the amount and timing of such payments are not known.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations is based on our financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). The preparation of our financial statements and related disclosures requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, costs and expenses, and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our financial statements. These items are monitored and analyzed by us for changes in facts and circumstances, and material changes in these estimates could occur in the future. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events, and on various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our actual results may materially differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

While our significant accounting policies are described in more detail in the notes to our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we believe that the following accounting policies are those most significant to the judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements.

Accrued Research and Development Expenses

As part of the process of preparing our financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses. This process involves reviewing open contracts and purchase orders, communicating with our personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf, and estimating the level of service performed and the associated costs incurred for the services when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of the actual costs. Most of our service providers invoice us in arrears for services performed, on a pre-determined schedule or when contractual milestones are met; however, some require advance payments. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date in our financial statements based on facts and circumstances known to us at that time. We periodically confirm the accuracy of these estimates with the service providers and make adjustments, if necessary. Examples of estimated accrued research and development expenses include fees paid to the following:

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clinical trial sites where patients are being treated with our product candidates;

•

consultants providing services related to process development, regulatory and other services; and

•

CDMOs who are manufacturing commercial-scale quantities of our product candidates.

Actual services performed may vary from our estimates, resulting in adjustments to research and development costs or inventories in future periods. Changes in these estimates that result in material changes to our accruals could materially affect our results of operations.

Determination of Fair Value of Warrants

In connection with the Series B convertible preferred stock issuance in November 2018, we issued warrants to purchase shares of common stock of which certain warrants are shown as a liability on the balance sheet. The fair value of the warrants was determined based on significant inputs not observable in the market. The fair value of the warrants uses various valuation methods, including the Monte Carlo method, the option-pricing method, probability-weighted expected return and the hybrid method, all of which incorporate assumptions and estimates, to value the common stock warrants. The hybrid method is often used when a company is expecting a liquidity event in the near future and is a combination of the option-pricing and probability-weighted expected return methods. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value per share of the underlying shares of common stock prior to the IPO, risk-free interest rate, expected dividend yield, expected volatility of the price of the underlying preferred stock, and the remaining contractual term of the warrants. The most significant assumption in the model impacting the fair value of the common stock warrants is the fair value of our common stock as of each remeasurement date. Prior to the IPO, we determined the fair value per share of the underlying common stock by taking into consideration the most recent sales of preferred stock, results obtained from third-party valuations and additional factors that were deemed relevant.

Stock-Based Compensation

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We measure stock options and other stock-based awards granted to our employees, directors, consultants, advisors based on the fair value on the date of the grant. We recognize compensation expense over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. We recognize forfeitures as they occur. For stock-based awards granted to non-employees, compensation expense is recognized over the vesting period which approximates the period over which services are rendered by such non-employees.

We estimate the fair value of each stock option grant on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which uses as inputs the fair value of our common stock and assumptions we make for the expected volatility of our common stock, the expected term of our stock options, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of our stock options, and our expected dividend yield.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

A description of recent accounting pronouncements that may potentially impact our financial position, results of operations, or cash flows is disclosed in Note 2 to our audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on form 10-K.

Emerging Growth Company Status

In April 2012, the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012 (the JOBS Act) was enacted. Section 107 of the JOBS Act provides that an “emerging growth company,” or an EGC, can take advantage of the extended transition period provided in Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the Securities Act) for complying with new or revised accounting standards. Thus, an EGC can delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have elected to use the extended transition period for new or revised accounting standards during the period in which we remain an emerging growth company; however, we may adopt certain new or revised accounting standards early.

We will remain an emerging growth company until the earliest to occur of: (1) the last day of the fiscal year in which we have more than $1.235 billion in annual revenue; (2) the date we qualify as a “large accelerated filer,” with at least $700.0 million of equity securities held by non-affiliates; (3) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt securities during the prior three-year period; and (4) the last day of the fiscal year ending after the fifth anniversary of our initial public offering.

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Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk.

We are a smaller reporting company as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and are not required to provide the information under this item.

Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.

Our consolidated financial statements, together with the report of our independent registered public accounting firm, appear beginning on page F-1 of this Annual Report for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Item 9. Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure.

None.

Item 9A. Controls and Procedures.

Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls and Procedures

Our management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving their objectives, and our management necessarily applies its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures.

Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Our management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rule 13a-15(f) under the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, as amended). We maintain “disclosure controls and procedures,” as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the Exchange Act) that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed in the reports that we file or submit under the Exchange Act is (1) recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the Securities and Exchange Commission’s rules and forms and (2) accumulated and communicated to our management, including our principal executive and principal financial officer, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure. Our management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving their objectives and our management necessarily applies its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to provide reasonable assurance of achieving their control objectives.

Our management, with the participation of our Chief Executive Officer and Interim Chief Financial Officer (our principal executive officer and principal financial officer, respectively), evaluated the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as of December 31, 2024. Based on the evaluation of our disclosure controls and procedures as of December 31, 2024, our Chief Executive Officer and Interim Chief Financial Officer concluded that, as of such date, our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level.

Management's Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

Our management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting. Internal control over financial reporting is defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Exchange Act as a process designed by, or under the supervision of, a company’s principal executive officer and principal financial officer, or persons performing similar functions, and effected by a company’s board of directors, management, and other personnel, to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles and includes those policies and procedures that:

•

pertain to the maintenance of records that in reasonable detail accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of a company’s assets;

•

provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and that a company’s receipts and expenditures are being made only in accordance with authorizations of the company’s management and directors; and

•

provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use or disposition of our assets that could have a material effect on the financial statements.

Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate. Under the supervision of and with the participation of our principal executive officer and principal financial

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officer, our management assessed the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2024 based on the criteria set forth by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission in Internal Control—Integrated Framework (2013). Based on this assessment, management concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2024.

This Annual Report on Form 10-K does not include an attestation report of our independent registered public accounting firm on internal control over financial reporting due to an exemption established by the JOBS Act for “emerging growth companies.”

Changes in Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

There was no change in our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15(d)-15(f) under the Exchange Act) that occurred during the three months ended December 31, 2024 that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

Item 9B. Other Information.

(a) None.

(b) The following table describes contracts, instructions or written plans for the sale or purchase of our securities adopted by our directors and certain officers during the fourth quarter of 2024, each of which is intended to satisfy the affirmative defense conditions of Exchange Act Rule 10b5-1(c), referred to as Rule 10b5-1 trading plans.

Item 9C. Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections.

Not applicable.

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PART III

Item 10. Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance.

The information required by this Item 10 will be included in our Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) with respect to our 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 11. Executive Compensation.

The information required by this Item 11 will be included in our Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 12. Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters.

The information required by this Item 12 will be included in our Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 13. Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence.

The information required by this Item 13 will be included in our Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 14. Principal Accountant Fees and Services.

Our independent public accounting firm is KPMG LLP, Boston, Massachusetts, PCAOB Auditor ID 185.

The information required by this Item 14 will be included in our Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2025 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

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PART IV

Item 15. Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules.

For a list of the financial statements included herein, see Index to the Consolidated Financial Statements on page F-1 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, incorporated into this Item by reference.

Financial statement schedules have been omitted because they are either not required or not applicable or the information is included in the consolidated financial statements or the notes thereto.

Exhibits

ExhibitNumber Description

4.2* Description of Securities

120

19.1* Candel Therapeutics, Inc. Insider Trading Policy

23.1* Consent of KPMG LLP, Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm

24.1* Power of Attorney (included on signature page)

101.SCH Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema With Embedded Linkbase Documents

104 Cover Page Interactive Data File (embedded within the Inline XBRL document)

* Filed herewith.

121

+ The certifications furnished in Exhibit 32.1 hereto are deemed to be furnished with this Annual Report on form 10-K and will not be deemed to be "filed" for purposes of Section 18 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, except to the extent that the Registrant specifically incorporates it by reference.

# Indicates a management contract or any compensatory plan, contract or arrangement

** Portions of this exhibit have been omitted by means of redacting a portion of the text and replacing it with “[***]” because they are both (i) not material and (ii) the type of information that the Registrant treats as private or confidential.

Item 16. Form 10-K Summary.

Not applicable.

122

INDEX TO CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Page

Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm F-2

Consolidated Balance Sheets F-3

Consolidated Statements of Operations F-4

Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity F-5

Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows F-6

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements F-7

F-1

Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm

To the Stockholders and Board of Directors

Candel Therapeutics, Inc.:

Opinion on the Consolidated Financial Statements

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of Candel Therapeutics, Inc. and subsidiary (the Company) as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the related consolidated statements of operations, stockholders’ equity, and cash flows for each of the years then ended, and the related notes (collectively, the consolidated financial statements). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the years then ended, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.

Basis for Opinion

These consolidated financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB.

We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the consolidated financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Company is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audits, we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion.

Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the consolidated financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the consolidated financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the consolidated financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

/s/ KPMG LLP

We have served as the Company’s auditor since 2019.

Boston, Massachusetts

March 13, 2025

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Candel Therapeutics, Inc.

Consolidated Balance Sheets

(In thousands, except share and per share amounts)

DECEMBER 31,

Assets

Current assets:

Prepaid expenses and other current assets 1,150 1,384

Lease right of use assets 542 816

Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity

Current liabilities:

Current portion of term loan payable to a bank 9,895 8,893

Current portion of lease liability 566 513

Warrant liability 21,718 —

Lease liability, net of current portion 407 973

Warrant liability — 916

Commitments and contingencies (Note 15)

Stockholders’ equity:

Treasury stock (at cost) (448 ) (448 )

Total liabilities and stockholders’ equity $ 106,866 $ 41,201

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Candel Therapeutics, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Operations

(In thousands, except share and per share amounts)

YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,

Operating expenses:

Other income (expense):

Change in fair value of warrant liability (20,802 ) 966

Total other income (expense), net (21,806 ) 452

Net loss and comprehensive loss $ (55,177 ) $ (37,939 )

Net loss per share, basic and diluted $ (1.74 ) $ (1.31 )

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

F-4

Candel ThErapeutics, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity

(In thousands, except share and per share amounts)

COMMON STOCK TREASURY STOCK

Stock-based compensation — — — — 3,137 — 3,137

Change in fair value of NC Ohio Trust Warrants — — — — (46 ) — (46 )

Stock-based compensation — — — — 4,170 — 4,170

Restricted stock unit vesting 1,936,460 21 — — (21 ) — —

Change in fair value of NC Ohio Trust Warrants — — — — 1,142 — 1,142

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Candel Therapeutics, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows

(In thousands, except share and per share amounts)

YEAR ENDEDDECEMBER 31,

Cash Flows from Operating Activities:

Adjustments to reconcile net loss to net cash used in operating activities:

Impairment of fixed assets 41 390

Loss on the sale of fixed assets — 79

Non-cash stock compensation expense 5,312 3,091

Non-cash interest expense 119 103

Change in fair value of warrant liability 20,802 (966 )

Accretion of debt discount 270 323

Changes in operating assets and liabilities:

Prepaid expenses and other current assets 234 503

Accounts payable (185 ) 45

Deferred income — (192 )

Net cash used in operating activities (27,023 ) (34,244 )

Cash Flows from Investing Activities:

Purchase of fixed assets (16 ) (457 )

Proceeds from the sale of fixed assets — 177

Net cash used in investing activities (16 ) (280 )

Cash Flows from Financing Activities:

Proceeds from option exercises 1,689 —

Principal payments on term loan (9,167 ) —

Payments related to tax withholding for vested restricted stock units — (121 )

Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 94,280 (121 )

Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at beginning of period 35,679 70,324

Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at end of period $ 102,920 $ 35,679

Supplemental cash flow information:

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

F-6

Candel Therapeutics, Inc.

Notes to consolidated financial statements

1. Organization and Basis of Presentation

Candel Therapeutics, Inc., formerly known as Advantagene, Inc. (the Company), is a clinical stage biopharmaceutical company that was incorporated in Delaware in June 2003. On November 30, 2020, the Company changed its name to Candel Therapeutics, Inc. The Company is focused on developing off-the-shelf viral immunotherapies that elicit an individualized, systemic anti-tumor immune response to help patients fight cancer. The Company’s engineered viruses are designed to induce immunogenic cell death through direct viral-mediated cytotoxicity in cancer cells, thus releasing tumor neo-antigens and creating a pro-inflammatory microenvironment at the site of injection. This is intended to lead to in-situ vaccination against the injected tumor and uninjected distant metastases. The Company has established two off-the-shelf viral immunotherapy platforms and its two product candidates, CAN-2409 and CAN-3110, are in clinical trials for a number of tumor types. Additionally, the Company and the University of Pennsylvania (UPenn) are collaborating to study the impact of novel viral immunotherapies based on Candel's propriety enLIGHTENTM Discovery Platform, a systematic, iterative herpes simplex virus based platform leveraging human biology and advanced analytics, to strengthen the effects of UPenn's investigational CAR-T cell therapies in solid tumors.

The Company is subject to risks and uncertainties common to early-stage companies in the biotechnology industry, including, but not limited to, development by competitors of new technological innovations, dependence on key personnel, protection of proprietary technology, compliance with government regulations and the ability to secure additional capital to fund operations. Product candidates currently under development will require significant additional research and development efforts, including preclinical and clinical testing and regulatory approval, prior to commercialization. These efforts require significant amounts of additional capital, adequate personnel and infrastructure and extensive compliance-reporting capabilities. Even if the Company’s product development efforts are successful, it is uncertain when, if ever, the Company will realize revenue from product sales.

Since inception, the Company has funded its operations primarily with proceeds from the sale of its convertible notes and capital stock and from debt borrowings. The Company has incurred recurring losses since its inception, including a net loss of $55.2 million and $37.9 million for the years ended December 31, 2024, and 2023, respectively. In addition, as of December 31, 2024, the Company had an accumulated deficit of $192.2 million. The Company expects to continue to generate operating losses and negative cash flows from operations for the foreseeable future.

On August 5, 2022, the Company filed a shelf registration statement on Form S-3 (as amended to date, the Shelf) with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which covers the offering, issuance, and sale by us of up to an aggregate of $200.0 million of our common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants and/or units of any combination thereof. We simultaneously entered into a sales agreement with Jefferies LLC, as sales agent, to provide for the issuance and sale by us of up to $75.0 million of our common stock from time to time in “at-the-market” offerings under the Shelf (the ATM Program). The Shelf was declared effective by the SEC on August 12, 2022. As of December 31, 2024, the Company has sold and issued 2,936,057 shares of common stock under the ATM Program, with total net proceeds of $15.8 million. Subsequent to December 31, 2024 and through March 6, 2025, the Company has sold and issued 40,334 additional shares of common stock under the ATM Program, with total net proceeds of $0.4 million.

The future viability of the Company is dependent on its ability to raise additional capital to finance its operations. The Company’s inability to raise capital as and when needed could have a negative impact on its financial condition and ability to pursue its business strategies. There can be no assurances that additional funding will be available on terms acceptable to the Company, or at all. The Company believes that existing resources will fund planned operations for at least 12 months from the issuance date of these consolidated financial statements.

Accordingly, the consolidated financial statements have been prepared on a basis that assumes the Company will continue as a going concern and that contemplates the realization of assets and satisfaction of liabilities and commitments in the ordinary course of business.

December 2024 Public Offering

On December 16, 2024, the Company completed a public offering of its common stock and, in lieu of common stock to certain investors, pre-funded warrants to purchase shares of its common stock. The Company issued and sold 12,000,001 shares of common stock, including full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase an additional 2,000,000 shares, at a public offering price of $6.00 per share. Additionally, in lieu of common stock to certain investors, the Company issued and sold pre-funded warrants to purchase 3,333,333 shares of its common stock at a public offering price of $5.99 per pre-funded warrant, which represents the per share public offering price of each share of common stock less the $0.01 per share exercise price for each pre-funded warrant. The aggregate gross proceeds

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before deducting underwriting discounts and commissions, and other estimated offering expenses payable by the Company were approximately $92.0 million.

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting standards set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). The FASB sets generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) that the Company follows to ensure its financial condition, results of operations, and cash flows are consistently reported. References to GAAP issued by the FASB in these notes to the financial statements are to the FASB Accounting Standards Codification (ASC).

Principles of Consolidation

The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Candel Therapeutics, Inc. and its wholly owned subsidiary Candel Therapeutics Securities Corporation. All intercompany transactions and balances have been eliminated.

Emerging Growth Company

The Company is an emerging growth company, as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012 (the Jobs Act). Under the Jobs Act emerging growth companies can delay adopting new or revised accounting standards issued subsequent to the enactment of the Jobs Act until such time as those standards apply to private companies. The Company has elected to use this extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards that have different effective dates for public and private companies until the earlier of the date that is (i) no longer an emerging growth company or (ii) affirmatively and irrevocably opts out of the extended transition period provided in the Jobs Act. As a result, these consolidated financial statements may not be comparable to companies that comply with the new or revised accounting pronouncements as of public company effective dates.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of the Company’s consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, and related disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. On an ongoing basis, the Company’s management evaluates its estimates, which include but are not limited to management’s judgments of accrued expenses, valuation of stock-based option awards, valuations of warrants, and income taxes. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

The Company considers all highly liquid investments purchased with original final maturities of three months or less from the date of purchase to be cash equivalents. Cash and cash equivalents comprise marketable securities with maturities of less than three months when purchased. Cash equivalents are reported at fair value.

Restricted Cash

The Company had $0.3 million of restricted cash as of both December 31, 2024 and 2023, which represents cash held as a security deposit under the terms of the Company’s Needham, Massachusetts facility lease.

Fair Value Measurements

Certain assets and liabilities of the Company are carried at fair value under GAAP. Fair value is defined as the exchange price that would be received for an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. Valuation techniques used to measure fair value must maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. Financial assets and liabilities carried at fair value are to be classified and disclosed in one of the following three levels of the fair value hierarchy, of which the first two are considered observable and the last is considered unobservable:

•

Level 1—Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities.

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•

Level 2—Observable inputs (other than Level 1 quoted prices), such as quoted prices in active markets for similar assets or liabilities, quoted prices in markets that are not active for identical or similar assets or liabilities, or other inputs that are observable or can be corroborated by observable market data.

•

Level 3—Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity that are significant to determining the fair value of the assets or liabilities, including pricing models, discounted cash flow methodologies and similar techniques.

The carrying values of cash and cash equivalents (considered as Level 1 measurements), accounts payable, and accrued expenses approximate their fair values due to the short-term nature of these assets and liabilities. The carrying value of the Company's term loan approximates fair value due to the variable interest rate.The Company’s warrant liability is carried at fair value and is classified as Level 3 measurement.

Property and Equipment

Property and equipment consist of laboratory and manufacturing equipment, networking and computer equipment, furniture and fixtures and leasehold improvements. Property and equipment are recorded at cost, and depreciated using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the respective assets:

ASSET ESTIMATED USEFUL LIFE

Networking and computer equipment 5 years

Laboratory equipment 5 years

Manufacturing equipment 5 years

Furniture and fixtures 5 years

Leasehold improvements Shorter of the useful life or remaining lease term

Leases

Lease right of use assets represent the Company’s right to use an underlying asset for the lease term and lease liabilities represent the Company’s obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. Lease right of use assets and lease liabilities are recognized at the lease commencement date based on the present value of lease payments to be made over the lease term. The lease right of use asset is equal to the lease liability and adjusted for prepaid rent, initial direct costs, and incentives. As the Company’s leases do not provide an implicit rate, the Company uses its incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at the lease commencement date in determining the present value of lease payments. The lease terms may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that the Company will exercise that option. Operating lease expense is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term. The Company has elected to not apply the recognition requirements of ASC 842 for short-term leases, which is defined as a lease that, at the lease commencement date, has a lease term of 12 months or less and does not include an option to purchase the underlying asset that the Company is reasonably certain to exercise.

For real estate lease agreements entered into or modified after the adoption of ASC 842 that include lease and non-lease components, the Company has elected to account for the lease and non-lease components, such as common area maintenance charges, as a single lease component term.

Concentrations of Credit Risk

Financial instruments that potentially expose the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist primarily of cash and cash equivalents. Periodically, the Company maintains deposits in accredited financial institutions in-excess of the federally insured limits. The Company deposits its cash in financial institutions with a high credit quality and has not experienced any losses on such accounts and does not believe it is exposed to any unusual credit risk beyond the normal risk associated with commercial banking relationships.

Impairment of Long-lived Assets

Long-lived assets to be held and used are tested for recoverability whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of the assets may not be fully recoverable. Factors that the Company considers in deciding when to perform an impairment review include significant underperformance of the business in relation to expectations, significant negative industry or economic trends and significant changes or planned changes in the use of the assets. If an impairment review is performed to evaluate a long-lived asset group for recoverability, the Company compares forecasts of undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the long-lived asset group to its carrying value. An impairment loss would be recognized when estimated undiscounted future cash flows expected to result from the use of an asset group are less than its carrying amount. The impairment loss would be based on the excess of the carrying value of the impaired asset group over its fair value, determined based on discounted cash flows. Long-lived assets consist of fixed assets and operating lease assets.

F-9

During the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company recorded impairment charges totaling approximately $41,000 and $0.4 million, respectively, related to manufacturing equipment that the Company has determined it does not plan to use for its intended use, and the Company recorded an impairment to reduce the carrying value to its estimated fair value. The Company has not recorded any other impairment losses on such long-lived assets.

Revenue Recognition

The Company applies ASC Topic 606, Revenue from Contracts with Customers, (ASC 606). This standard applies to all contracts with customers, except for contracts that are within the scope of other standards, such as leases, insurance, collaboration arrangements and financial instruments. Under ASC 606, an entity recognizes revenue when its customer obtains control of promised goods or services, in an amount that reflects the consideration which the entity expects to receive in exchange for those goods or services. To determine revenue recognition for arrangements that an entity determines are within the scope of ASC 606, the entity performs the following five steps: (i) identify the contract(s) with a customer; (ii) identify the performance obligations in the contract; (iii) determine the transaction price; (iv) allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations in the contract; and (v) recognize revenue when (or as) the entity satisfies a performance obligation. The Company only applies the five-step model to contracts when it is probable that the entity will collect the consideration it is entitled to in exchange for the goods or services it transfers to the customer. At contract inception, once the contract is determined to be within the scope of ASC 606, the Company assesses the goods or services promised within each contract and determines those that are performance obligations, and then assesses whether or not each promised good or service is distinct. The Company then recognizes as revenue the amount of the transaction price that is allocated to the respective performance obligation when (or as) the performance obligation is satisfied.

Research and Development Costs and Accruals

Research and development expenses include salaries and benefits, materials and supplies, preclinical and clinical trial expenses, stock-based compensation expense, depreciation of equipment, contract services and other outside expenses. The Company has entered into various research and development-related contracts with clinical and research institutions, contract research organizations, and other companies. These agreements are generally cancelable, and related payments are recorded as research and development expenses as incurred. Costs of certain development activities, such as manufacturing, pre-clinical and clinical trial expenses, are recognized based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks. Payments for these activities are based on the terms of the individual arrangements, which may differ from the pattern of costs incurred, and are reflected in the financial statements as prepaid or accrued research and development costs. Nonrefundable advance payments for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are deferred and capitalized. The capitalized amounts are expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed. Costs incurred in obtaining technology licenses and intellectual property are charged to research and development expenses as acquired in-process research and development if the technology licensed or intellectual property acquired has not reached technological feasibility and has no alternative future use.

Patent Costs

All patent-related costs incurred in connection with preparing, filing, maintaining and prosecuting patent applications are expensed as incurred due to the uncertainty about the recovery of the expenditure. Amounts incurred are classified in general and administrative expenses.

Stock-Based Compensation

The Company accounts for its stock-based compensation in accordance with ASC Topic 718, Compensation—Stock Compensation (ASC 718). ASC 718 requires all share-based payments to employees and directors to be recognized as expense in the consolidated statements of operations based on their grant date fair values. In addition, in accordance with FASB Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2016-09 which identifies areas for simplification of several areas of share-based payment transactions, the Company treats non-employee grants the same as employee grants. The Company estimates the fair value of options granted using the Black-Scholes option pricing model for stock option grants to both employees and non-employees. The Company believes the fair value of the stock options granted to non-employees is more reliably determinable than the fair value of the services provided.

The Black-Scholes option pricing model requires inputs based on certain subjective assumptions, including (a) the expected stock price volatility, (b) the expected term of the award, (c) the risk-free interest rate and (d) expected dividends. Due to a lack of company-specific historical and implied volatility data, the Company has based its computation of expected volatility on a combination of the historical volatility of the Company and of a representative group of public companies with similar characteristics to the Company, including stage of product development and life science industry focus. The historical volatility is calculated based on a period of time commensurate with the expected term assumption. The Company uses the simplified method as prescribed by the SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin No.

F-10

107, Share-Based Payment, to calculate the expected term for options granted to employees as it does not have sufficient historical exercise data to provide a reasonable basis upon which to estimate the expected term. The expected term is applied to the stock option grant group as a whole, as the Company does not expect substantially different exercise or post-vesting termination behavior among its employee population. For options granted to non-employees, the Company utilizes the contractual term of the share-based payment as the basis for the expected term assumption. The risk-free interest rate is based on a treasury instrument whose term is consistent with the expected term of the stock options. The expected dividend yield is assumed to be zero as the Company has never paid dividends and has no current plans to pay any dividends on its common stock.

The Company generally expenses the fair value of its share-based compensation awards to employees and non-employees on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period.

Government Grants

The Company has applied for grants for the reimbursement of expenditures with the Massachusetts Life Sciences Center for certain qualified operating expenditures, including employee related costs. The Company recognizes government grants when there is reasonable assurance that the Company will comply with the conditions attached to the grant arrangement and the grant will be received.

Government grants are recorded as grant income and classified in other income in the consolidated statements of operations. The Company did not recognize any government grants for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023.

Income Taxes

The Company accounts for income taxes using the asset and liability method in accordance with ASC Topic 740, Income Taxes (ASC 740) which requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been recognized in the financial statements or in the Company’s tax returns. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined on the basis of the differences between the financial statement and tax basis of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. Changes in deferred tax assets and liabilities are recorded in the provision for income taxes. The Company assesses the likelihood that its deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income and, to the extent it believes, based upon the weight of available evidence, that it is more likely than not that all or a portion of the deferred tax assets will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established through a charge to income tax expense. Potential for recovery of deferred tax assets is evaluated by estimating the future taxable profits expected and considering prudent and feasible tax planning strategies. At December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company has concluded that a full valuation allowance is necessary for its deferred tax assets (see Note 12).

The Company accounts for uncertainty in income taxes, by applying the two-step process to determine the amount of tax benefit to be recognized in the financial statements. First, the tax position must be evaluated to determine the likelihood that it will be sustained upon external examination by the taxing authorities. If the tax position is deemed more-likely-than-not to be sustained, the tax is then assessed as the amount of benefits to be recognized in the consolidated financial statements. The amount of benefits that may be used are the largest amounts that have a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon ultimate settlement. The provision for income taxes includes the effects of any resulting tax reserves or unrecognized tax benefits that are considered appropriate as well as the related net interest received. As of December 31, 2024, the Company did not record any unrecognized benefits from uncertain tax positions in its consolidated financial statements.

Net Loss Per Share

Basic net loss per share is computed by dividing net loss attributable to common stockholders by the weighted-average number of shares of common stock outstanding during the period, including the pre-funded warrants given their nominal exercise price. Diluted net loss per share is computed using the weighted-average number of shares of common stock outstanding during the period, including the pre-funded warrants given their nominal exercise price and, if dilutive, the weighted-average number of potential shares of common stock. In periods where the Company reports a net loss attributable to common stockholders, diluted net loss per share is the same as basic net loss per share, since dilutive shares of common stock are not assumed to have been issued if their effect is anti-dilutive. Diluted net loss per share is the same as basic net loss per share for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023 since all potential shares of common stock instruments are anti-dilutive as a result of the loss for such periods.

Recently Adopted Accounting Standards

In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, Segment Reporting: Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures, which amends guidance in ASC 280, Segment Reporting The amendments in this ASU expand segment disclosure requirements, including new segment disclosure requirements for entities with a single reportable segment, among other disclosure requirements. The ASU’s amendments are effective for public business entities for annual

F-11

periods beginning after December 15, 2023. The Company adoptedASU 2023-07 for the year ended December 31, 2024 (see Note 17).

Recently Issued Accounting Standards

In October 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-06, Disclosure Improvements: Codification Amendments in Response to the SEC's Disclosure Update and Simplification Initiative, which modifies the disclosure or presentation requirements related to a variety of FASB Accounting Standard Codification topics. The effective date for each amendment will be the date on which the SEC's removal of that related disclosure from Regulation S-X or Regulation S-K is effective, with early adoption prohibited. If by June 30, 2027, the SEC has not removed the applicable requirement from Regulation S-X or Regulation S-K, the pending content of the associated amendment will be removed from the Codification and will not become effective for any entities. The Company is currently evaluating the potential impact that ASU 2023-06 may have on its consolidated financial statements and related disclosures.

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which amends the guidance in ASC 740, Income Taxes. The ASU is intended to improve the transparency of income tax disclosures by requiring (1) consistent categories and greater disaggregation of information in the rate reconciliation and (2) income taxes paid disaggregated by jurisdiction. It also includes certain other amendments to improve the effectiveness of income tax disclosures. The ASU’s amendments are effective for public business entities for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024. Early adoption is permitted. Adoption can be either prospectively or retrospectively applied, and the Company will adopt this ASU on a prospective basis. The Company is currently evaluating the potential impact that ASU 2023-09 may have on its consolidated financial statements and related disclosures.

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU 2024-03, Income Statement-Reporting Comprehensive Income-Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses, which requires additional disclosure in the notes to the financial statements of the nature of certain expenses included in the income statement. The ASU's amendments are effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted. Adoption can be either prospectively or retrospectively applied. The Company is currently evaluating the potential impact that ASU 2024-03 may have on its consolidated financial statements and related disclosures.

3. Fair Value of Financial Assets and Liabilities

The following tables present information about the Company’s financial assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis and indicate the level of the fair value hierarchy utilized to determine such fair values (in thousands):

FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENTS AS OFDECEMBER 31, 2024 USING:

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 TOTAL

Liabilities:

FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENTS AS OFDECEMBER 31, 2023 USING:

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 TOTAL

Liabilities:

Valuation of Warrant Liability

In connection with the November 13, 2018 issuance of Series B convertible preferred stock, the Company issued warrants to purchase shares of common stock of which certain warrants are shown as a liability on the balance sheet, see Note 10. The fair value of the warrant liability was determined based on significant inputs not observable in the market, which represents a Level 3 measurement within the fair value hierarchy. The fair value of the warrant liability uses various valuation methods, including the Monte Carlo method, the option-pricing method, probability-weighted expected return and the hybrid method, all of which incorporate assumptions and estimates, to value the common stock warrants. The hybrid method is often used when a company is expecting a liquidity event in the near future and is a combination of the option-pricing and probability-weighted expected return methods. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value per share of the underlying shares of common stock, risk-free interest rate, expected dividend yield, expected volatility of the price of the underlying common stock, and the

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remaining contractual term of the warrants. The most significant assumption in the model impacting the fair value of the common stock warrants is the fair value of the Company’s common stock as of each remeasurement date.

The following table provides a roll forward of the aggregate fair values of the Company’s warrant liability, for which fair value is determined by Level 3 inputs (in thousands):

SERIES BWARRANTLIABILITY

Change in fair value (966 )

Change in fair value 20,802

4. Fixed Assets, Net

Fixed assets, net consisted of the following (in thousands):

DECEMBER 31,

Manufacturing equipment 695 730

Networking and computer equipment 85 88

Less: accumulated depreciation (3,076 ) (2,089 )